MASTER 
NEGATIVE 

NO.  95-82372 


COPYRIGHT  STATEMENT 


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Author: 


Lehmann,  Helen  Mary 


Title: 


Paper  and  stationery 


Place: 


New  York 

Date: 

1922 


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II.  Title. 


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MERCHANDISE 

MAiNUAL 

SERIES 


PAPER 


LEHMANN-KE  NNARD 


Criuntbta  lBn\r>tviitp 


LIBRARY 


School  of  Business 


•*•     f-» 


Courtesy  of  Eberhard  Faber  Company 
Process  of  Making  Pencils 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 


PAPER    AND 
STATIONERY 


BY 


HELEN  MARY  LEHMANN,  B.A. 

Member  of  Editorial   Staff,  Dry  Goods  Economist;   formerly 

Instructor   in    Merchandise,    New    York    City    Department 

Stores,  Texas  University,  and  New  York  University 

AND 

BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD,  M.A. 

Editor  of  Series;  formerly  Director  of  Department  Store 
Courses,  New  York  University:  Chairman  of  Committee  on 
Merchandise  Courses  for  New  York  City  Public  Schools;  Edu- 
cational Director,  Department  Store  Education  Association 


NEW  YORK 
THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

1922 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXPOSURE 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 


«  HF.UUO!« 


PAPER    AND 
STATIONERY 


BY 
HELEN  MARY  LEHMANN,  B.A. 

Member  of  Editorial   Staff,  Dry  Goods  Economist;  formerly 

Instructor    in    Merchandise,    New    York    City    Department 

Stores,  Texas  University,  and  New  York  University 

AND 

BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD,  M.A. 

Editor  of  Series;  formerly  Director  of  Department  Store 
Courses.  New  York  University:  Chairman  of  Committee  on 
Merchandise  Courses  for  New  York  City  Public  Schools;  Edu- 
cational Director,  Department  Store  Education  Association 


Courtesy  of  Eberhard  Faber  Company 
Process  of  Making  Pencils 


NEW  YORK 
THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

1922 


2^  2  "*^  0  ^ 


'7 


Copyright,  1917,  by 
The  Ronald  Press  Company 


Copyright,  1922,  by 

The  Ronald  Press  Company 

All  rights  reserved 


1^   ^54-.  53 

Lso. 


to  Mrs.  Henry  OUesheimer,  Miss 
Virginia  Potter,  and  Miss  Anne 
Morgan,  who  desiring  to  give 
greater  opportunity  for  advance- 
ment to  commercial  employees  and 
believing  that  all  business  efficiency 
must  rest  upon  a  solid  foundation 
of  training  and  education  gave 
years  of  enthusiastic  service  to  the 
testing  of  this  belief. 


EDITOR'S   PREFACE 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 

EDITOR  OF   SERIES 

BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD,  M.A. 

Formerly  Director  of  Department  Store  Courses,  New  York 

University;  Chairman  of  Committee  on  Merchandise  Courses 

for  New  York  City  Public  Schools;   Educational  Director, 

Department  Store  Education  Association 

CONSULTING  EDITOR 

LEE  GALLOWAY,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  Head  of  Department 
of  Management,  and  formerly  Director  of  Training  School 
for  Teachers  of  Retail  Selling,  New  York  University: 
formerly    Educational    Director,  the   National  Commercial 

Gas  Association 


As  "Department  Store  Merchandise  Manuals"  these 
books  were  originally  written  for  salespeople  and  were 
designed  to  give  them  reliable  information  concerning 
the  sources  and  manufacturing  processes  of  the  mer- 
chandise which  they  handle.  When  it  was  necessary 
to  deal  with  scientific  or  historical  material  it  was 
treated  as  simply  and  concretely  as  possible  and  the 
point  of  view  taken  was  that  of  business  rather  than 
that  of  the  school  or  laboratory.  In  this  form  they 
have  proved  their  practical  value  not  only  to  the  de- 
partment store  salesperson  but  in  the  specialty  shop. 
It  has  been  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  material  has 
a  wider  scope  than  that  of  sales  manuals  alone. 

As  reference  books,  librarians  will  find  the  short, 
clear  statements  and  full  indexes  invaluable. 

As  an  encyclopaedia  of  merchandise  the  series  con- 
tains scientific  information  in  a  simple,  compact  form 
which  makes  it  available  for  children  and  others  to 
whom  the  subjects  treated  are  unfamiliar. 

As  textbooks  they  are  adapted  for  use  in  commercial 
schools,  high  schools,  night  schools,  settlement  classes, 
and  by  teachers  of  household  arts  and  domestic  science. 


VI 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


As  source  books  for  practical  story-telling,  kinder- 
gartners,  primary  and  vacation  school  teachers  will 
find  in  them  an  abundance  of  interesting  material  for 
short  "true"  stories  on  the  various  industries  and  crafts, 
the  manufacture  of  household  articles,  such  as  pins 
and  needles,  as  well  as  the  making  of  pottery,  glass,  and 
steel.  These  manuals  contain  just  the  material  often 
hunted  for  in  vain  by  teachers  and  librarians. 

As  household  helps  and  shopping  guides  the  young 
housekeeper  will  find  the  manuals  her  best  friends  be- 
cause they  not  only  describe  the  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses but  tell  her  how  to  distinguish  well-made  articles 
of  good  materials  from  the  inferior  and  badly  made. 
They  also  tell  her  how  to  care  for  the  clothing  or 
household  goods  which  she  has  bought. 

For  salespeople  and  storekeepers  they  supply  the 
general  and  specific  information  about  their  merchan- 
dise which  is  indispensable  to  efficiency,  yet  very 
hard  to  gather  from  the  scattered  sources  upon  which 
they  now  depend. 

These  changes  should  enlarge  the  usefulness  of  the 
manuals  without  losing  any  of  their  specific  value  in 
the  field  of  salesmanship. 

We  wish  to  express  our  grateful  appreciation  to  the 
manufacturers  and  experts  who  have  given  us  such 
valuable  counsel  and  cordial  co-operation. 

Beulah  Elfreth  Kennard. 


AUTHORS'  PREFACE 


The  information  contained  in  this  manual  has  been 
gathered  and  arranged  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  better 
acquaintance  with  the  quality  and  styles  of  paper  sold  in 
the  Stationery  Department,  as  well  as  with  the  many  arti- 
cles associated  with  the  desk  or  library  table.  The  chap- 
ter on  engraving  has  been  included  to  furnish  the  technical 
knowledge  necessary  for  the  intelligent  handling  and  sell- 
ing of  cards,  invitations,  and  other  engraved  goods. 

The  definite  knowledge  concerning  the  various  proc- 
esses of  paper  manufacture  was  obtained  from  prominent 
manufacturers  of  paper  and  from  an  extended  study  of 
technical  works  on  the  subject. 

The  authors  are  indebted  to  Mr.  E.  H.  Naylor,  Secre- 
tary of  the  American  Paper  and  Pulp  Association,  George 
B.  Hurd  and  Company,  The  Parsons  Paper  Company, 
Mr.  G.  Nelson  Ball  of  the  Ball  Engraving  Company, 
Mr.  Thomas  A.  Isert,  Secretary  of  The  National  Associa- 
tion of  Steel  and  Copper  Plate  Engravers,  to  the  Tech- 
nology Department  of  the  New  York  Public  Library, 
and  especially  to  the  Forestry  Service  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  and  to  the  Forest  Products 
Laboratory,  Madison,  Wis.,  for  valuable  assistance  ren- 
dered.   For  illustrations  thanks  are  due  to  The  United 


Vll 


Vlll 


AUTHORS'  PREFACE 


States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Crane  and  Company, 
Mr.  John  E.  Meyer,  L.  E.  Waterman  Company,  The 
American  Magazine  of  Art,  and  Eberhard  Faber  Com- 
pany. 

Helen  Mary  Lehmann. 
Beulah  Elfreth  Kennard. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 


I    The  Stationery  Department      .     . 

Divisions  of  the  Department 

Variety  of  Stock 

Sources  of  Supply  of  Paper  ^ 

Other  Departments  in  Which  Paper  is  Found 


/ 


PAGB 
I 


II     Paper 


Foundation  Material  of  Paper 

Linen 

Cotton 

Cotton  and  Linen  Rags 

Wood  Pulp 

Destruction  of  the  Forests 

Government  Investigations 

Forest  Fires 

Reforestation 

Using  New  Species  of  Trees 

Crop  Fibers 

Straw  Paper  in  the  United  States 

Esparto  and  Rice  Straw 

Papyrus 

Bast  Fibers 

Hemp  Hurds 

Cotton  Linters 

Increased  Supply  of  Cotton  Linters  Since  the  War 

Experiments  on  New  Materials 

Resources  of  Alaska 

Extent  of  the  National  Forests  of  Alaska 

Alaskan  Transportation 

iz 


X 

CHAPTER 


III 


CONTENTS 

Alaskan  Water  Power 

Alaskan  Climate 

Cost  of  Development  of  Alaskan  Forests 

The  Use  of  Waste  Paper 

The  Manufacture  of  Paper  Pulp     .     . 

Descriptions  of  Process  for  Rag  Paper 

Dusting 

Sorting 

Cutting 

Boiling 

Washing 

Water 

Bleaching 

Making  Wood  Pulp 

Mechanical  Pulp 

The  Drum  Barker 

Grinding  the  Pulp 

Adapting  Process  to  Other  Varieties  of  Trees 

Screening  and  Pressing 

Sulphite  Pulp 

Preparation  of  Wood 

Digesters 

Cooking  and  Screening  Sulphite  Pulp 

The  Decker  and  Wet  Machine 

Characteristics  of  Sulphite  Pulp 

Soda  Pulp 

Preparation 

Digestion  or  Cooking 

Recovery  of  Chemicals 

Sulphate  Pulp 

Cotton  Linters 

Processes 

Bagasse 

Waste  Paper 

Bleaching 

IV    Converting  Pulp  into  Paper  .... 

Beaters  or  "Hollanders" 
Construction  of  "Hollander" 
Stock  or  Stuff  Chests 


CONTENTS 


PAGB 


CHAPTBR 


XI 
fACS 


23 


The  Jordan  Engine 

The  Furnish 

Dyeing 

Coloring  Matters 

Characteristics  of  Different  Dyes 

Leading  or  Filling 

Sizing 

Tub-Sizing 

V    Finishing  the  Paper 52 

Hand-Made  Paper 

The  Water  Mark 

Length  of  Time  of  Process 

Fourdrinier  Machine 

Time  Required  to  Make  Pulp  into  Paper 

Pulp  on  the  Wire 

The  Deckle  Straps 

The  Dandy  Roll 

Passing  to  the  Rolls 

The  Dryers 

Calendering  or  Glazing 

Rewinding  and  Cutting 

Supercalendering  and  Plating 

Kinds  of  Finish 

Coated  Paper 

Glazed  Paper 

Water  Finish 

Writing  Paper 

Novelty  Finishes  of  Writing  Paper 

Book  Paper 

Newsprint 


42 


VI    Making  Paper  into  Stationery 

Cutting 

Envelopes 

Cards 

Sizes 

Commercial  Stationery — Bond  Paper 

Sizes  of  Commercial  Stationery 

Ledgers 


•  63 


I 


xu 

CHAPTER 


VII 


VIII 


PAGB 


76 


CONTENTS 

Loose-Leaf  Devices 

Filing  Envelopes 

Special  Kinds  of  Envelopes 

Characteristics  or  Properties  of  Good 
Paper      

Characteristics 

Texture 

Finish 

Durability 

Strength 

Color 

Tests  for  Bond  Papers 

Tests  for  Ledger  Papers 


Specially  Prepared  Papers  and  Paper 

Products 83 

Bank  Note  Paper 

Blotting  Paper 

Blue  Print  Paper 

Boards  or  Board  Paper 

Carbon  Paper 

Crepe  Paper 

Deckled-Edge  Paper 

Filter  Paper 

Hardware  Paper 

Japanese  Paper 

Kraft  Paper 

Manila  Paper 

Onion  Skin  Paper 

Packing  Papers 

Papier  Mache 

Paper  Toweling 

Parchment  Paper 

Photographic  Paper 

Protective  or  Safety  Papers 

Rice  Paper 

Roofing  and  Building  Papers 

Silverware  Paper 

Tin  Foil 


CHAPTBR 


CONTENTS 

Tissue  Papers 

Tracing  Paper 

Transfer  Paper 

Vellum 

Vulcanized  Paper 

Vulcanized  Fiber 

Waxed  Paper 

Imitations  of  Other  Materials 


XIU 

PAGE 


•         •         •         •         • 


IX    Wall  Paper  . 

Manufacture 

Printing  Wall  Paper 

Grounding 

Printing  the  Design 

Dry  and  Rolling 

Block  Printing 

Embossing 

Flock  Papers 

Japanese  Leather  Papers 

Other  Finishes 

Design  in  Wall  Paper 

Colors  for  Household  Decoration 

Suggestions  for  Color  Schemes 

History 

X    History  of  Paper 

Early  Methods  of  Keeping  Records 
Parchment 

Earliest  Form  of  Paper 
Ancient  Use  of  Papyrus 
The  First  Real  Paper 
Japanese  Paper 
Present  Methods 
Paper-Making  in  Europe 
American  Industry 
Use  of  Cotton  and  Linen  Rags 
Extent  of  Present-Day  Industry 
Canadian  Industry 

Chronology    of   the    Principal    Inventions 
Patents 


94 


105 


and 


XIV 


CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


PACK 


XI    Engraving  and  Printing  .... 

Orders  for  Engraving 

How  Engraving  is  Done 

Intaglio  Engraving 

Copper  Plate  Engraving 

Steel  Plate  Engraving 

Steel  Die  Engraving 

Copper  Plate  Printing 

Steel  Plate  Printing 

Steel  Die  Embossing  or  Stamping 

Illumination 

Care  of  Plates  and  Dies 

Writing  the  Copy  for  the  Engraver 

Origin  of  Engraving 

Imitation  of  Engraving 

Printing  from  Type 

XII     Engraving  and  Printing  (Continued)     .   124 

Styles  and  Social  Customs 

Sizes  of  Visiting  Cards 

Styles  of  Lettering 

Forms  of  Visiting  Cards 

Wedding  Invitations  and  Announcements 

Personal  Form  of  Wedding  Invitation 

Impersonal  Form  of  Wedding  Invitation 

Wedding  Announcement 

Invitation  to  the  Wedding  Reception 

Card  of  Admission  to  the  Church 

At  Home  Card 

Customs  as  to  Wef'ling  Invitations 

Invitations  for  Other  Occasions 

Forms 

Sizes  and  Styles 

Monograms 

Styles  of  Monograms 

Addresses 

Crests  and  Coats  of  Arms 


CHAPTER 


XIV 


XV 


XIII    Leather  Goods 

Articles 
Leathers 


136 


CONTENTS 


Russia  Leather 

Morocco 

Parchment  and  Vellum 

Levant 

Tanning  and  Dressing 

Tooling 

Design 

Color 


XV 

PACE 


Metal  Goods 

Articles 

Metals 

Qualities 

Gold 

Silver 

Other  Metals 

Color 

Design 

Methods  of  Applying  Design 

Other  Materials 

Novelties,  Gifts,  and  Favors     .     .     . 

Importance  of  Display 

Gifts  and  Favors 

Slow  Stock 

Seasonal  Goods,  Calendars,  and  Cards 

Playing  Cards 

XVI    Stationery  Supplies  and  Miscellane- 
ous     

Importance  of  These  Small  Articles 

Lead  Pencils 

Wood  Used 

Finishing 

Special  Kinds  of  Pencils 

Pens — History 

Process  of  Manufacturing  Pens 

Other  Metals  Used  for  Pens 

Fountain  Pens 

Materials 


141 


151 


154 


if 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTBR 


XVII 


XVIII 


PAGB 

Set  of  Fountain  Pens 

Ornamentation 

Forms  of  Fountain  Pens 

Ink 

Requirements  of  a  Good  Ink 

Special  Kinds  of  Inks 

Glue 

Mucilage 

Paste 

Sealing  Wax 

Rulers 

Erasers 

Rubber  Bands 

Seals 

Labels 

Paper  Sets 

Twines  and  Cords 

Suggestions   to   Salespeople  and   Cus- 
tomers     i5g 

For  Correspondence  Papers 

For  Engraving 

For  Novelties  and  Supplies 

Classification  of  Stock  of  Stationery 
Department jy^ 

Appendix j^g 

Classification  of  Paper  and  Paper  Products 
Imports  and  Exports  of  Paper  and  Pulp 
Partial    List   of    Substances    Experimented    on 

for  Paper-Making 
Manufacturers  of  Writing   Paper 
Manufacturers  of  Fine  Stationery 
Books  for  Reference 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Process   of   Making   Pencils Frontispiece 

FIGURE  FACING  PAGE 

1.  Flax  Fibers  Highly  Magnified (on  page)  5 

2.  Cutting  Rags 24 

3.  Wood  Pulp  Fibers  Highly  Magnified 34 

4.  A  Beating  Machine 44 

5.  Jordan  Engine .  44 

6.  "Dry  End"  of  a  Fourdrinier  Machine 56 

7.  Rolls  of  Paper 60 

8.  Supercalender 60 

9.  An  Example  of  Scenic  Wall  Paper 102 

10.  Styles  of  Engraving (on  page)  127 

11.  Steel  Pen  in  Different  Stages  of  Manufacture     (on  page)   157 

12.  Cross  Section  of  a  Fountain  Pen    ....     (00  page)  160 


xvu 


PAPER    AND 
STATIONERY 

Chapter  I 

THE  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENT 

Divisions  of  the  Department 

The  stock  of  the  Stationery  Department  comprises 
correspondence  paper,  writing  materials,  accessories  for 
the  writing  desk  or  library  table,  and  many  novelties 
for  table  decorations  or  favors.  It  may  be  grouped  in 
six  divisions : 

Paper 

Engraving 

Leather  Goods 

Metal  Goods 

Novelties,  Gifts,  and  Favors 

Stationery  Supplies 

Variety  of  Stock 

Paper  is  the  staple  material  in  the  department.     It 
is  seen  in  the  boxes  and  pound  packages  of  correspond- 


2      PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

ence  stationery,  in  invitation  and  announcement  cards, 
in  pads  and  note  books,  score  cards,  albums,  calendars, 
Christmas  or  other  seasonal  cards,  and  playing  cards. 
Table  decorations  and  favors,  hand-painted  and  daintily 
colored,  and  tissue  novelties  all  are  made  of  paper. 

The  engraving  section  is  an  important  one  and  needs 
accurate  information  on  the  part  of  those  who  buy  or 
sell  stationery,  as  invitations,  announcements,  and  call- 
ing cards  must  be  in  accordance  with  good  form  and 
also  with  the  prevailing  fashion. 

Among  the  leather  goods  are  many  varieties  of  mem- 
orandum books,  diaries,  dance,  calling,  and  laundry 
lists,  and  desk  sets.  The  metal  goods  are  equally 
varied,  consisting  of  desk  and  library  sets,  ornaments, 
and  book  ends,  and  are  made  of  many  metals  and 
alloys. 

Sources  of  Supply  for  Paper 

The  materials  and  sources  of  supply  for  paper  have 
changed  so  radically  within  the  hst  ten  years  and  they 
are  so  closely  connected  with  other  changes  in  our 
commercial  situation  that  paper  has  become  a  peculiarly 
interesting  subject  for  study,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  adaptable  forms  of  merchandise. 

The  artistic  arrangement  of  stock,  with  suitable 
combinations  for  desk  or  table,  always  attracts  atten- 
tion to  the  counter  and  if  a  thorough  knowledge  of 


THE  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENT  3 

stock  is  added  to  good  taste  it  becomes  one  of  the  most 
interesting  of  all  departments  to  the  salesperson. 

Other  Departments  in  Which  Paper  Is  Found 

Paper,  aside  from  wrappings  and  containers,  may 
be  found  in  almost  every  department  of  a  modern 
store.  Chief  among  these  are  the  Stationery  and  Wall 
Paper  Departments,  but  it  is  also  found  in  the 
following  : 


House  furnishings 
Upholstery 
Leather  Goods 
Furniture 
Lamps 


Carpets  and  Linoleums 

Curtains 

Notions 

Millinery 

Art 


Paper  is  used  extensively  in  the  arts  and  trades 
and  is  employed  for  such  different  purposes  as 
phonograph  records  and  shingles. 


Chapter  II 

PAPER 

Foundation  Material  of  Paper 

Paper  is  made  from  cellulose,  the  fibrous  material 
of  which  plants  and  trees  are  mainly  composed,  and 
differs  from  cotton  or  linen  cloth  only  in  the  way 
in  which  these  fibers  are  held  together.  Very  much 
shorter  fibers  may  be  used  in  paper  than  in  cloth. 
They  may  be  obtained  from  a  large  variety  of  plants 
and  trees  and  experiments  have  been  made  with  very 
strange  materials,  including  hornets'  nests,  gutta 
percha,  and  stone.  (See  Appendix.)  Though  paper 
may  be  made  from  many  kinds  of  plants,  the  difficul- 
ties of  manufacture  are  often  prohibitive.  The  com- 
mercial value  of  each  depends  upon  the  cost  of 
separating  the  cellulose  from  resins,  fatty  substances, 
coloring  matter,  and  other  non-fibrous  material;  upon 
the  length  and  strength  of  the  fiber ;  and  other  factors, 
such  as  cost  of  transportation  and  regularity  of  supply. 

Linen 

The  best  linen  rags  are  used  for  the  highest  grades 
of  writing,  bond,  and  ledger  papers.    The  government 


PAPER  5 

paper  used  for  bank  notes  is 
made  at  the  Crane  government 
mills  at  Dalton,  Mass.,  of  new 
clean  linen  rags  which  are  cut- 
tings from  the  textile  factories. 
Papers  made  from  linen  are 
close,  strong,  and  durable  be- 
cause the  flax  fiber  from 
which  linen  is  made  is  longer, 
stronger,  straighter,  and  more 
even  than  cotton  fiber.  Fig- 
ure I  shows  the  flax  fiber 
highly  magnified. 

Cotton 

The  growing  scarcity  of 
linen  rags  has  caused  cotton  to 
be  substituted  even  for  fine 
writing  and  ledger  papers. 
During  the  war  cotton  rags 
were  used  for  bank  notes. 
Papers  made  from  cotton  are 
softer  than  those  made  from 
linen.  Tender  cotton  rags  are 
also  used  for  blotting  papers  and  filter  papers. 

Cotton  and  Linen  Rags 

Cotton  and  linen  rags  would  be  the  most  satisfactory 


Figure  i.    Flax  Fibers 
Highly  Magnified 


6       PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

materials  for  stationery  and  nearly  all  paper  products 
If  the  supply  were  at  all  equal  to  the  demand.    The  ease 
with  which  they  can  be  converted  into  pulp  and  the 
strength  of  the  fiber,  which  does  not  need  to  be  treated 
with  destructive  chemicals,  make  these  materials  ideal 
but  the  amount  of  rag  paper  now  used  is  small,  neariy 
all  of  It  ^ing  used  for  fine  stationery,  bonds,  and  bank 
notes.     For  other  purposes  either  wood  pulp  or  a 
combination  of  wood  and  cotton  rags  is  emploved, 
though  experiments  are  being  made  at  the   United 
btates  laboratories  and  elsewhere  to  bring  other  fibers 
into  use. 

Wood  Pulp 

The  use  of  wood  pulp  for  nearly  all  printed  matter 
and  paper  products  has  made  this  source  of  supply 
of  the  greatest  importance,  especially  in  the  United 
States.^ 

Woods  vary  in  the  amount  of  cellulose  which  they 
contain,  but  they  average  about  50  per  cent. 

In  length  the  fibers  vary  from  1/25  to  ;^  of  an  inch, 
and  are  usually  very  thin.  Yellow  pine  has  a  long 
soft,  and  flexible  fiber,  very  similar  to  cotton,  while 
other  wood  fibers  are  generally  short,  circular,  and  in- 
flexible.    Mechanical  wood  pulp  has  little  felting  qual- 

p^l'  per  cent  of  the  paper  used  in  the  United  States  is  made  from  wood 


PAPER  7 

ity  and  requires  the  addition  of  longer  fibers,  such  as 
chemical  wood  pulp,  to  make  a  good  paper.^ 

Destruction  of  the  Forests 

Until  a  few  years  ago  the  forests  of  America  were 
considered  inexhaustible  and  they  were  used,  like  our 
other  natural  resources,  in  the  most  wasteful  and  ex- 
travagant way.  The  cutting  has  far  exceeded  the  an- 
nual growth  and  no  provision  has  been  made  for  the 
future.  The  European  forests  have  been  guarded  for 
centuries  so  that  new  timber  should  always  equal  the 
annual  cut,  but  many  parts  of  the  United  States  which 
used  to  be  heavily  wooded  are  now  almost  bare  of  trees. 

Only  a  few  varieties  of  trees  were  cut,  namely, 
spruce,  true  firs,  and  hemlock  among  the  evergreens, 
and  aspen,  poplar,  birch,  and  cottonwoods  among  the 
deciduous   (non-evergreen)   trees.     According  to  the 


1  Relative  approximate  lengths  of  paper-making  fibers  in  millimeters: 

Linen       25-30 

Cotton      20-40 

Hemp       20-25 

Manila       4-6 

Jute  2 

Esparto      5 

Straw         0.2 
I    meter  =  39.37   inches.    A   millimeter   is    1/1,000   of  meter   or   about 
1/25    of  an   inch. 
Relative   amounts   of   cellulose    in    woods: 

Poplar      62.77 

Pine  57.00 

Lime  53.09 

Beech  45.47 

Birch  55.42 


8       PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  1918  the  sup- 
ply  of  pulp  came  almost  entirely  from  four  species : 

Spruce 55^^ 

Hemlock   15 

Balsam    7 

Poplar 5 

These  species  grow  in  the  northeastern  and  lake  states 
where  nearly  all  the  paper  mills  are  located. 

The  United  States  still  exports  lumber,  but  in  1914 
we  were  importing  large  quantities  of  pulp  wood  and 
pulp  from  Norway  and  Canada.  When  European  sup- 
plies were  cut  off  by  the  war  we  turned  to  Canada  for 
larger  quantities,  but  eastern  Canada  sees  the  early 
exhaustion  of  her  own  pulp  woods.  At  the  present  rate 
of  cutting  they  will  be  gone  within  25  years.  Canada 
therefore  prohibited  the  export  of  pulp  wood  and  en- 
couraged  the  home  manufacture  of  paper. 

Since  the  close  of  the  war  Australia,  South  America 
and  Asia  have  been  competing  with  us  for  pulp  from 
Norway  and  Sweden,  so  that  if  :he  United  States 
would  avoid  prohibitive  costs  she  must  learn  to  depend 
upon  her  own  resources  instead  of  looking  to  forei^ 
countries  for  two-thirds  of  her  newspaper  pulp  as  in 
1919.  Yet  paper  manufacturers  have  found  that  their 
materials  were  not  only  growing  more  expensive  every 
year  but  if  present  methods  are  continued  the  home 
product  cannot  be  obtained  at  any  price. 


PAPER  9 

Government  Investigations 

For  a  number  of  years  the  United  States  govern- 
ment has  been  making  investigations  and  conducting 
experiments  for  the  relief  of  this  situation.  The 
Forest  Products  Laboratory  at  Madison,  Wis.,  the 
Forestry  Bureau  in  Washington,  and  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  are  co-operating  in  this  effort  and  they 
are  all  in  touch  with  the  work  of  the  mills  and  Paper 
Manufacturers'  Association  in  a  national  movement 
for  the  protection  of  the  forest  reserves. 

There  are  five  lines  of  development  in  the  work : 

1.  Saving  the  trees  from  wasteful  forest  fires. 

2.  Scientific  reforestation. 

3.  Using  new  species  of  trees. 

4.  Substituting  crop  fibers  for  wood  pulp. 

5.  Utilizing  the  forests  of  Alaska. 

Forest  Fires 

The  destruction  of  our  forests  by  fire  is  appallingly 
great  and  most  of  the  loss  is  quite  unnecessary. 
Colonel  W.  B.  Greeley,  a  chief  of  the  Forest  Service, 
stated  to  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
that  we  have  from  ten  to  twenty-five  thousand  forest 
fires  every  year  which  destroy  the  young  forest  growth 
on  at  least  eight  or  ten  million  acres  annually.^  In 
Canada  the  destruction  of  forests  by  fire  is  said  to  be 
greater  than  for  all  manufactures  combined. 

*H.  R.  15337,  January  26,  1921. 


I   :' 


1!' 


10     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

In  order  to  prevent  this  destruction,  many  forest 
patrols  are  needed  but  neither  the  state  nor  national 
governments  have  as  yet  appropriated  nearly  enough 
money  for  this  service.  Patrols  include  lookout  sta- 
tions at  important  points,  and  foresters  who  walk  over 
trails,  and  the  recent  addition  of  air  service. 

The  cost  of  adequate  protection  has  been  estimated 
at  about  eight  million  dollars  a  year  (against  a  fire  loss 
of  twenty-five  million)  which  should  be  divided  be- 
tween the  national  and  state  governments  and  private 
owners  who  are  not  able  to  protect  even  their  own  prop- 
erties without  government  co-operation.  While  only  6 
or  8  per  cent  of  the  lumber  cut  is  used  for  paper,  yet  the 
paper  industry  has  led  in  the  conservation  movement. 

Reforestation 

Reforestation  includes  the  planting  of  new  acreage 
and  also  the  control  of  the  lumber  cut,  so  that  young 
trees  may  grow  to  maturity  and  the  old  wasteful 
methods  of  logging  may  be  prevented. 

Reforestation  is  a  slow  and  expensive  process,  re- 
quiring the  co-operation  of  all  the  lumber  interests 
with  the  government.  The  growth  of  the  long-fibered 
coniferous    (cone-bearing)  trees  is  very  slow: 

Red  spruce  grows  44  feet  in  80  years. 

Hemlock  grows  37  feet  in  80  years. 

White  pine  grows  82  feet  in  80  years. 


f.f' 


PAPER 


II 


The  planting  has  been  going  forward  at  the  rate  of 
from  6,000  to  9,000  acres  a  year,  but  it  should  be  not 
less  than  100,000  acres  a  year.* 

Using  New  Species  of  Trees 

Spruce  and  hemlock  have  been  used  so  extensively 
for  paper  pulp  not  only  because  of  their  long  fibers 
but  because  of  their  freedom  from  resin  which  makes 
the  southern  pines  and  gums  more  difficult  to  handle 
successfully.     Spruce  trees  have  exceptionally  strong, 
clean  fibers  which  can  be  used  in  making  mechanical 
pulp  and  in  the  sulphite  process    (see  Chapter  III) 
better  than  any  other,  but  experiments  have  shown  that 
resinous  trees  may  be  pulped  successfully  with  the  soda 
or  sulphite  process  and  it  is  hoped  that  they  may  soon 
become  commercially  profitable  for  this  purpose.    One 
conifer,  the  jack  pine,  has  a  long  fiber,  similar  to 
spruce,  but  has  been  considered  valueless  because  of  the 
pitch  which  it  contains.    Recent  experiments  show  that 
the  pitch  may  be  easily  removed   by   the  sulphate 
process. 

Crop  Fibers 

In  Europe,  where  labor  is  cheap  and  wood  is  dear, 
various  kinds  of  grasses  and  straw  have  long  been 
in  use  for  the  making  of  paper.    Among  these  are : 

*H.  R.  15327. 


12    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

1.  Wheat,  oats,  and  barley  straw. 

2.  Rice  straw  and  esparto— more  recently  papyrus. 

3.  Hemp  and  flax  fiber  and  the  related  fibers  of 

manila,  ramie,  and  jute. 

Straw  Paper  in  the  United  States 

Straw  is  used  in  considerable  quantities  for  straw- 
board  (pasteboard),  cardboard,  and  wrapping  paper 
and  sometimes  for  newspaper.  Much  of  the  straw 
comes  from  the  eastern  part  of  the  wheat  belt  in  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois.  The  government  laboratory  has 
recently  made  the  following  report  on  the  suitability 
of  these  fibers: 

It  is  believed  that  these  fibers  are  not  suitable  for  pulping 
under  present  American  conditions  as  they  offer  the  following 
difficulties  in  handling. 

1.  Plant  stalks,  straws,  grasses,  etc.,  usually  contain  a  large 
percentage  of  pith  giving  pulps  low  in  fibre  content  and 
require  high  chemical  consumption. 

2.  Material  of  this  type  represents  seasonal  crops  so  that 
large  storage  facilities  must  be  provided  ...  in  order  to 
permit  the  paper  mill  to  operate  throughout  the  year.  The 
susceptibility  of  material  of  this  nature  to  decay  also  adds 
greatly  to  the  costs  and  difficulties  of  storage. 

3.  Due  to  the  bulkiness  of  these  materials  the  digester 
charge  is  reduced,  thereby  reducing  the  yield  and  increasing 
the  overhead  costs  proportionately.     (See  Chapter  III.) 


PAPER 


13 


£sparto  and  Rice  Straw 

Esparto  is  a  tough  wiry  grass,  like  fine  broom  corn, 
that  grows  in  Africa  and  Spain.  It  is  similar  to  flax 
in  structure  but  stronger  and  more  elastic.  It  is  largely 
used  in  the  making  of  English  books.  Two  million 
tons  of  it  are  imported  by  England  from  North 
Africa  every  year.  It  makes  a  paper  soft  and  chalky 
in  texture  and  is  especially  valuable  in  making  the 
featherweight  papers  used  in  bulky  volumes  of  fiction. 
Esparto  was  first  used  about  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  and  in  the  next  thirty  years  became  more 
important  than  rags  in  the  English  paper  industry. 
Grasses  similar  to  esparto  are  found  in  this  country, 
but  they  have  not  yet  been  used  commercially  in  paper- 
making.  Rice  straw  is  much  used  in  China  and  Japan, 
but  in  this  country  it  is  not  commercially  valuable.  It 
is  not  very  different  from  wheat  straw. 

Papyrus 

Papyrus,  the  plant  fiber  used  by  the  Egyptians  and 
early  Greeks,  is  again  being  considered  among  the  im- 
portant sources  of  material  for  paper.  Africa  con- 
tinues to  be  the  home  of  the  plant  and  there  are  now 
papyrus  mills  in  Zululand.  Thousands  of  acres  in 
Central  Africa  are  covered  with  the  reedy  grass.  This 
area  is  controlled  by  France  but  concessions  have  been 


14    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

given  to  Norway  and  Belgium  and  manufacturers  from 
these  countries  are  locating  paper  mills  near  the  ancient 
centers  where  the  stems  were  slit,  pressed  together,  and 
dried  in  the  sun.     (See  page  107.) 

Bast  Fibers 

Both  hemp  and  flax  are  raised  in  the  United 
States  but  the  demand  for  the  bast  (stem)  fibers  in 
the  manufacture  of  textiles,  rope,  and  similar  uses 
exhausts  the  supply.  Hemp  usually  comes  to  the  paper 
mill  in  the  form  of  old  ropes  and  strings  which  can 
only  be  made  into  unbleached  wrappings,  cardboard, 
etc.  The  quantity  of  manila  and  ramie  is  very  limited 
and  jute  is  a  coarse  heavy  fiber  only  used  for  inferior 
grades  of  paper. 

Hemp  Hurds 

The  government  has  been  making  experiments  with 
the  woody  inner  portion  of  the  hemp  stalk  which  is 
broken  into  pieces  when  the  fiber  is  removed  and  is 
called  "hemp  hurds."  The  hurds  are  now  used  for 
stable  bedding  and  packing  and  have  very  little  com- 
mercial value,  being  considered  a  waste  product.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  wherever  hemp  is  raised  in  con- 
siderable quantities,  as  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Wisconsin, 
and  California,  and  collected  at  a  few  central  places 
for  machine  "breaking"  the  hurds  may  be  cheaply  baled 


PAPER 


15 


and  sent  to  paper  mills  in  quantities  large  enough  to  be 
valuable  to  the  trade. 

According  to  the  calculations  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture : 

Every  tract  of  ten  thousand  acres  devoted  continuously  to 
hemp  raising  is  equivalent  to  a  sustained  pulp  produciHg 
capacity  of  40,500  acres  of  average  wood  lands.  In  other 
words,  in  order  to  secure  additional  raw  material  for  the 
production  of  25  tons  of  fiber  per  day  there  exists  the  pos- 
sibility of  utilizing  the  agricultural  waste  already  produced 
on  10,000  acres  of  hemp  lands  instead  of  securing,  holding, 
reforesting,  and  protecting  40,500  acres  of  pulp-wood  land. 

The  annual  growth  per  acre,  although  decidedly  in  favor 
of  hurds,  has  little  bearing  on  the  project,  because  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  hurds  is  subordinate  to  the  raising  of  hemp,  and 
the  paper  manufacturer  probably  could  aflford  to  use  only 
hurds  resulting  from  the  hemp  industry. 

The  question  of  storage  of  raw  materials  is  a  seri- 
ous one  in  the  case  of  all  crop  plants  and  would  be  the 
main  obstacle  here  also. 


Cotton  Linters 

Another  promising  source  of  paper-making  material 
may  be  found  in  cotton  linters  and  hull  fiber,  which  is 
also  largely  a  waste  product  at  present. 

After  the  cottonseed  has  passed  through  the  ginning 
process  for  the  removal  of  long  staple  cotton  it  is 
shipped  to  the  oil  mills  for  the  extraction  of  cottonseed 


I6    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

oil.  When  it  arrives  at  the  mills  it  has  adhering  to 
it  about  200  pounds  of  cotton  for  each  ton  of  seed. 
Before  the  war  it  was  customary  to  take  off  a  "cut'* 
of  from  40  to  60  pounds  of  the  fiber  per  ton  of  seed, 
the  balance  being  left  adhering  to  the  hull.  This  cut 
was  used  for  stuffing  mattresses,  pads,  and  upholstery 
and  for  the  making  of  guncotton,  pyroxylin,  and  var- 
nishes. The  tremendous  demand  for  nitro-cellulose 
between  191 5  and  191 9  caused  the  mills  to  put  in  better 
machinery  by  which  125  pounds  of  linters  per  ton  of 
seed  was  obtained  instead  of  40  to  60  pounds. 

Increased  Supply  of  Cotton  Linters  Since  the  War 

Since  the  war  demand  has  ceased,  this  increased  pro- 
duction may  be  available  for  other  purposes  and,  owing 
to  the  large  quantity  which  the  War  Department  had 
on  hand  in  191 9,  the  Salvage  Board  of  the  Ordinance 
Department,  United  States  Army,  asked  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory  at  Wisconsin  to  determine  the 
suitability  of  second-cut  cotton  linters  and  hull  fibers 
for  paper  manufacture. 

Commercial  trials  at  the  laboratory  indicate  that 
second-cut  linters  and  hull  shavings  can  be  pulped  with 
much  less  chemical  and  bleach  consumption  than  wood 
and  that  they  are  well  suited  for  the  production  of 
high-grade  papers. 

The    government    stock    was    soon    provided    for 


PAPER 


17 


but  the  annual  production  of  cottonseed  is  betweefi  4 
and  4j^  million  tons.  If  each  oil  mill  removed  100 
pounds  of  the  linter  and  hull  fiber  per  ton  (after  mak- 
ing a  75-pound  cut  for  the  mattress  trade),  there  would 
be  available  annually  about  200,cxx)  tons  of  this  ma- 
terial, or  650  tons  a  day. 

Experiments  on  New  Materials 

The  Forest  Products  Laboratory,  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  has  experimented  with  the  following  new 
materials  for  paper-making : 

Bagasse,  which  is  the  waste  material  of  sugar  cane 
after  the  juice  has  been  pressed  out,  contains  both 
fibrous  and  non-fibrous  cellulose,  which  may  be  con- 
verted into  paper  by  treating  the  fiber  with  either  the 
sulphite  or  soda  process  and  the  non-fibrous  by  the 
"Lee"  process  (see  Chapter  III). 

Corn  stalks  are  found  to  have  several  objections  to 
their  use — difficulties  of  collection  and  storage  and  the 
presence  of  pith  which  weakens  the  paper  and  makes 
it  brittle.  This  latter  difficulty  has  been  met  by  a 
change  of  process  but  not  the  former.  Broom  com  has 
the  same  objection. 

Zacaton.  Epicampes  macaroura,  known  locally  as 
"zacaton,"  is  a  Mexican  grass,  the  roots  of  which  are 
extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes.  The 
grass  cut  from  the  roots  is  not  utilized,  and  moreover, 


1 8    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

the  grass  grows  wild  over  immense  areas  in  different 
portions  of  Mexico.  Practical  mill  tests  have  shown 
that  this  material  is  suitable  for  the  production  of  very 
excellent  grades  of  book  paper,  and  the  material  may  at 
some  time  be  worthy  of  consideration  as  a  paper- 
making  material. 

Hemp  Flyings,  Hemp  flyings  is  the  industrial  waste 
derived  from  hemp  fiber  in  the  process  of  rope  manu- 
facture. Practical  paper  mill  tests  have  demonstrated 
that  this  material  may  be  readily  converted  by  the  com- 
monly employed  pulp  and  paper-making  processes  into 
a  thin,  pliable,  opaque  paper,  which  characteristics 
make  it  eminently  suitable  as  a  so-called  "Bible  paper." 
Such  papers  are  used  in  the  printing  of  thin,  light 
editions  of  the  Bible,  encyclopedias,  etc.  Hemp  fiber 
appears  to  be  a  fiber  pre-eminently  suitable  for  the 
production  of  this  grade  of  paper.  This  sample  at- 
tracted no  little  attention  from  the  manufacturers  of 
this  grade  of  paper,  and  the  work  may  result  in  the 
utilization  of  this  domestic  by-product. 

Resources  of  Alaska 

The  necessity  for  new  sources  of  supply  for  pulp 
wood  has  caused  the  development  of  pulp  and  paper 
mills  in  the  northwestern  part  of  British  Columbia  and 
seems  to  justify  the  opening  up  of  the  National  Forest 
in  southeastern  Alaska,  which  is  but  little  farther  away. 


PAPER 


19 


The  British  Columbia  mills  have  a  reported  invest- 
ment of  $42,000,000  and  have  met  the  pioneer  con- 
ditions of  successful  operation. 

Former  Secretary  of  Agriculture  Meredith  has  said 
that  Alaska  is  destined  to  become  a  second  Norway. 

With  her  enormous  forests  of  rapidly  growing  species 
suitable  for  pulp,  her  water  power  and  her  tide  water  ship- 
ment of  manufactured  products,  Alaska  will  undoubtedly 
become  one  of  the  principal  paper  sources  of  the  United 
States.  A  substantial  development  of  the  paper  industry  in 
this  wonderful  region  combined  with  the  intelligent  reforesta- 
tion of  pulp  lands  in  the  older  regions  should  settle  forever 
the  question  of  a  paper  shortage  in  the  United  States. 

Extent  of  the  National  Forests  of  Alaska 

The  National  Forests  of  Alaska  probably  contain 
100,000,000  cords  of  timber  suitable  for  the  manu- 
facture of  paper.  Under  careful  management  they 
should  produce  enough  pulp  wood  for  one-third  of  all 
the  pulp  products  of  the  United  States.  The  timber  con- 
sists of  spruce,  hemlock,  red  cedar,  and  Cyprus  with  a 
small  amount  of  cottonwood,  birch,  etc.  The  hemlock 
and  spruce  are  commercially  suitable  for  mechanical 
and  sulphite  pulp,  while  the  cottonwood  is  a  source 
for  soda  pulp. 

Alaskan  Transportation 

The  Tongass  Forest,  which  is  nearest  to  the  sea, 


20    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

has  already  been  investigated  and  is  much  more  ac- 
cessible than  is  usually  supposed.  Southeastern  Alaska 
has  also  many  deep  water  harbors  open  all  the  year  and 
is  well  located  with  reference  to  shipments  by  rail  and 
water.  The  canneries  have  already  created  systems  of 
transportation  with  over  thirty  freight  and  passenger 
steamships  running  regularly  between  American  and 
Canadian  ports. 

Alaskan  Water  Power 

Owing  to  the  mountains,  which  rise  almost  imme- 
diately from  the  coast,  there  is  abundant  water  power 
during  the  summer  season.  Many  of  the  streams  are 
made  of  a  series  of  cataracts.  They  head  either  in 
glaciers  or  in  small  lakes  which  occur  a  short  distance 
from  the  shore  line. 

The  lakes  afford  good  opportunity  for  storage,  as 
dams  could  be  constructed  to  raise  the  water  level,  but 
at  present  the  streams  have  a  very  uneven  flow  which 
almost  stops  in  winter  when  the  ground  is  frozen  to  bed 
rock,  holding  back  the  water.  This  condition  lasts  for 
three  or  four  months  each  winter,  but  if  storage  were 
provided  the  flow  might  be  controlled  so  that  the  time 
of  drought  would  be  much  shorter,  perhaps  no  longer 
than  the  time  in  which  pulp  mills  are  obliged  to  shut 
down  in  the  late  summer  elsewhere. 


PAPER 


21 


Alaskan  Climate 

The  climate  of  southern  Alaska  is  mild  compared  to 
that  in  the  same  latitude  inland.  The  Japan  current 
modifies  the  temperature  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is 
possible  to  work  in  the  open  all  the  year  round  and  the 
low  summer  temperature  is  an  advantage  in  sulphite 
mill  practice.  On  account  of  the  short  winter  days, 
however,  indoor  work  would  be  more  profitable  at 
that  season. 

Cost  of  Development  of  Alaskan  Forests 

The  country  is  undeveloped,  and  if  mills  were 
erected,  towns  must  also  be  built  with  wharves,  store- 
houses, dwelling  houses,  machine  shops,  stores,  and 
water  works.  The  initial  cost  of  a  paper  plant  located 
in  Alaska  would  be  great  and  require  a  large  invest- 
ment of  capital  without  any  return  for  two  years  or 
more.  However,  when  once  established  the  supply  of 
timber  would  be  permanent  and  the  other  production 
costs  might  be  stabilized  to  a  greater  degree  than  in 
the  average  location  in  the  United  States. 

The  Use  of  Waste  Paper 

The  Waste  Reclamation  Service  of  the  Department 
of  Commerce  urges  a  more  extensive  use  of  waste 
paper  as  raw  material  in  paper  manufacture. 

Every  ton  of  waste  paper  that  can  be  substituted  in 


!■  f- 


I.  . 


22     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

paper  manufacture  will  save  eight  trees  of  mature 
growth,  required  to  produce  a  ton  of  wood  pulp.  We 
are  sending  annually  to  the  dump  150,000  tons  of  waste 
paper,  representing  substituted  power  for  at  least 
1,200,000  trees  of  mature  growth. 

The  Waste  Reclamation  Service  says  that  the  largest 
amount  of  waste  paper  consists  of  any  and  every  sort 
and  scrap  of  paper,  such  as  old  newspapers,  and  its 
chief  use  is  for  paper  boxes,  roofing  and  building 
boards,  paper  shipping  containers,  and  wrapping  paper. 
More  than  2,000,000  tons  of  ordinary  waste  papers  are 
used  for  boxes  and  shipping  containers  alone,  the  use 
of  waste  papers  for  this  purpose  preventing  the  con- 
sumption of  over  1,000,000,000  feet  of  lumber  an- 
nually. To  a  limited  extent,  old  newspapers  are  used 
in  making  new  print  paper  but  the  resulting  paper  is 
weak  and  requires  an  addition  of  sulphite  pulp  to  give 
the  finished  product  the  requisite  strength.  Repulped 
old  news  stock  cannot  be  so  rapioly  run  through  the 
paper  machines,  but  its  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
boxes,  wrapping  paper,  etc.,  is  thoroughly  practicable 
and  satisfactory.  A  great  variety  of  old  paper  is  used 
by  the  paper  industry,  ranging  from  the  best  qualities 
of  old  book  paper  to  waste  ''common  papers." 


Chapter  III 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  PULP 
Description  of  Process  for  Rag  Paper 

The  ragman  is  still  called  upon  for  material  for  the 
finer  grades  of  paper,  even  as  he  was  before  the  inven- 
tion of  sulphite  or  mechanical  wood  pulp.  Cotton  and 
linen  rags  are  also  obtained  in  large  quantities  from 
the  cuttings  of  textile  manufacturers,  but  the  advance 
in  the  price  of  rag  papers  and  the  limited  supply  of  the 
material  has  caused  the  substitution  of  wood  pulp  in 
larger  and  larger  quantities  for  all  but  the  finest  grades 
of  stationery  and  book  papers. 

The  process  of  making  paper  from  rags  is  in  its 
earlier  stages  simpler  than  for  wood  or  other  fibers. 

We  may  consider  the  process  of  making  paper  from 
rags  as  representative  and  descriptive  of  the  method 
used  for  all  materials. 

Dusting 

The  first  step  is  the  dusting  of  the  bales  of  rags 
gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  which  are  bought 
by  the  pound.  The  rags  are  put  into  a  huge  machine 
which  frees  them  from  much  of  their  dust  and  filth 
before  going  to  the  sorting  room.  If  they  have  come 
from  questionable  sources  they  are   fumigated  first. 

23 


If 


24    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Sorting 

Although  the  rags  are  separated  according  to  their 
different  qualities  before  going  to  the  mills,  so  that  the 
paper-maker  can  secure  the  particular  grade  he  needs 
for  a  certain  purpose,  yet  a  second  sorting  takes  place 
inside  the  mill,  as  the  quality  of  the  finished  paper 
depends  very  largely  upon  the  condition  of  the  rags. 
For  example,  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  high  grade 
linen  paper  if  the  rags  are  old  and  worn  and  contain 
more  or  less  cotton.  Therefore,  the  rags  are  carefully 
sorted  as  to  material  (cotton,  linen,  hemp,  or  wool), 
color  (white  or  dyed),  quality  (new  or  worn),  and 
condition  (clean  or  dirty) ;  the  hooks  and  eyes,  seams, 
etc.,  are  removed  by  hand  and  the  sorted  lots  are  sent 
to  the  cutting  rooms. 

New  rags  do  not  have  to  be  dusted  or  sorted. 

Cutting 

In  the  cutting  room  the  rags  are  dumped  into  a  big 
machine  where  they  are  cut  and  chopped  by  revolving 
knives  into  small  pieces  suitable  for  cleaning  in  the 
rollers.  For  fine  grades  of  paper  the  rags  are  often 
cut  by  hand,  so  that  the  fibers  may  not  be  torn  as  they 
are  in  the  machine-cut  rags,  but  machine  cutting  is  the 
usual  method.  They  come  out  in  small  shreds  freed 
from  much  of  the  dust  and  dirt  left  after  the  dusting 
process.     As  they  are  being  tossed  and  whirled  about 


i 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


24    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Sorting 

Although  the  rags  are  separated  according  to  their 
different  qualities  before  going  to  the  mills,  so  that  the 
paper-maker  can  secure  the  particular  grade  he  needs 
for  a  certain  purpose,  yet  a  second  sorting  takes  place 
inside  the  mill,  as  the  quality  of  the  finished  paper 
depends  very  largely  upon  the  condition  of  the  rags. 
For  example,  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  high  grade 
linen  paper  if  the  rags  are  old  and  worn  and  contain 
more  or  less  cotton.  Therefore,  the  rags  are  carefully 
sorted  as  to  material  (cotton,  linen,  hemp,  or  wool), 
color  (white  or  dyed),  quality  (new  or  worn),  and 
condition  (clean  or  dirty)  ;  the  hooks  and  eyes,  seams, 
etc.,  are  removed  by  hand  and  the  sorted  lots  are  sent 
to  the  cutting  rooms. 

New  rags  do  not  have  to  be  dusted  or  sorted. 

Cutting 

In  the  cutting  room  the  rags  are  dumped  into  a  big 
machine  where  they  are  cut  and  chopped  by  revolving 
knives  into  small  pieces  suitable  for  cleaning  in  the 
rollers.  For  fine  grades  of  paper  the  rags  are  often 
cut  by  hand,  so  that  the  fibers  may  not  be  torn  as  they 
are  in  the  machine-cut  rags,  but  machine  cutting  is  the 
usual  method.  They  come  out  in  small  shreds  freed 
from  much  of  the  dust  and  dirt  left  after  the  dusting 
process.     As  they  are  being  tossed  and  whirled  about 


MANUFACTURE  OP  PAPER  PULP 


25 


in  the  cutting  machine,  the  suction  of  air  currents 
draws  out  the  dust  and  carries  it  off  in  tubes,  while 
ingenious  devices  such  as  magnetic  brushes,  placed  in 
various  positions  in  the  machine,  take  out  the  metal 
and  other  hard  matter  which  would  lower  the  quality 
of  the  finished  paper.  Finally,  the  partially  cleansed 
and  cut  rags  are  carried  out  of  the  cutting  machines 
by  an  endless  belt  on  which  they  may  be  inspected 
before  going  to  the  boiling  and  beating  machines. 
(See  Figure  2.) 

Boiling 

In  the  floor  of  the  room,  where  the  endless  belt  drops 
the  cut  rags,  are  openings  into  huge  revolving  boilers 
made  of  steel  plate,  each  of  which  will  hold  five  or 
more  tons  of  material.  Through  these  openings  the 
rags  are  dumped  into  a  hot  solution  of  lime  and  soda 
in  which  they  are  boiled  under  heavy  steam  pressure. 
This  severe  boiling  and  digesting  process  which  lasts 
from  three  to  seven  hours  removes  the  coloring  and 
glutinous  matters,  as  well  as  grease,  dirt,  and  other 
impurities.  The  rag  pulp  now  looks  like  thin,  dirty 
mush. 

Washing 

The  pulp  is  then  put  into  a  beating  engine  in  order 
to  wash  out  all  the  alkali  and  also  the  grease  or  other 


26      PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

impurities  which  have  been  loosened  in  the  boiler.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  in  manufacturing  one  ton  of 
finished  paper  50,000  to  200,000  gallons  of  water 
are  required  in  the  various  processes. 

Water 

An  abundance  of  good,  clear  water  is  therefore 
obviously  necessary  to  the  paper-maker.  Spring  water 
is  preferable  and  for  this  reason  paper  mills  are  located 
where  the  natural  supply  is  abundant.  It  is  essential  to 
fine  white  paper.  For  the  lower  grades  of  paper  it,  of 
course,  is  not  of  such  vital  importance.  Any  impuri- 
ties in  the  water  will  combine  with  the  chemicals  in 
the  various  materials  and  bring  about  a  result  different 
from  that  obtained  with  pure  water.  The  paper  manu- 
facturer must  know  exactly  what  elements  are  in  the 
water,  which  when  perfectly  pure  is  colorless,  trans- 
parent, tasteless,  and  odorless. 

Natural  water  may  come  from  rain,  rivers,  or  wells. 
Rain  water  may  contain  acids  and  impurities  such  as 
soot,  but,  being  soft,  is  very  desirable.  River  water  is 
also  soft  but  is  likely  to  contain  impurities  such  as  iron 
and  lime.  Well  water  resembles  spring  water  and  is 
more  or  less  hard,  containing  lime,  earthy  salts,  and 
organic  matters. 

Hard  water  must  be  softened  before  it  is  suitable  for 
use  in  manufacturing  the  best  qualities  of  white  paper. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  PULP 


27 


Settling  ponds  or  filters  attached  to  the  washing  and 
beating  engines  may  be  employed  in  softening. 

Bleaching 

It  is  necessary  to  bleach  the  pulp  after  it  has  been 
washed  and  this  process  takes  place  in  the  washers. 

Early  in  the  industry  before  bleaching  processes  were 
known,  the  color  of  the  rags  or  other  materials  de- 
termined the  color  of  the  paper.  But  today,  in  paper 
making  as  in  the  textile  industry,  bleaching  has  become 
a  highly  specialized  work.  By  means  of  bleaching 
powders,  such  as  chloride  of  lime,  sulphuric  or  chloric 
acid,  color  may  be  removed  from  the  rags  quickly  and 
effectively. 

Bleaching  also  aids  in  eliminating  the  vegetable  and 
mineral  impurities  from  the  paper.  Care  must  be 
taken,  however,  not  to  continue  the  process  too  long  or 
the  strength  of  the  fiber  will  be  weakened.  The 
bleaching  materials  must  also  be  well  washed  out  before 
dyeing  or  the  coloring  matter  will  be  effected. 

Making  Wood  Pulp 

The  conversion  of  wood  into  paper  pulp  is  a  more 
complicated  process.  There  are  now  four  different 
methods  of  making  wood  pulp,  the  product  in  each 
case  being  named  from  the  method.  These  products 
are: 


? 


m 


28    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

1.  Mechanical  pulp 

2.  Sulphite  pulp 

3.  Scxla  pulp 

4.  Sulphate  pulp 

Mechanical  Pulp 

The  "ground  wood,"  or  mechanical,  process  of  re- 
ducing wood  to  pulp  requires  a  non-resinous,  long- 
fibered  wood  of  good  color,  free  from  impurities,  as 
the  color  and  cleanliness  of  the  pulp  depend  directly 
upon  the  color  and  quality  of  the  wood,  which  are 
not  changed  by  any  chemical  process.  Spruce  and 
balsam  are  the  woods  most  used. 

The  logs  are  first  barked  and  cut  into  two-foot 
lengths.  A  barker  is  a  steel  disk  enclosed  in  a  heavy 
iron  frame.  The  disk  has  three  knives  inserted  in  it 
in  such  a  way  that  they  can  shave  the  bark  off  as 
the  log  is  held  against  it.  Both  the  disk  and  the  wood 
are  turned  in  the  machine  so  that  the  knives  reach 
every  part  of  the  circumference. 

The  Drum  Barker 

Owing  to  the  uneven  surface  and  different  sizes 
of  the  logs,  there  is  a  large  amount  of  wood  cut 
away  with  the  bark.  Some  manufacturers  there- 
fore use  a  barking  drum,  which  is  a  revolving  iron 
cylinder  fitted  with  projections  to  scrape  off  the  bark 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  PULP 


29 


as  the  blocks  of  wood  tumble  about  in  it.  A  stream 
of  water  assists  in  clearing  the  bark  away.  Some- 
times both  the  drum  and  disk  are  used. 


Grinding  the  Pulp 

There  are  two  different  methods  of  grinding  the 
pulp.  In  the  first  the  wood  is  ground  in  the  presence 
of  large  quantities  of  water,  producing  a  fine  even  grade 
of  pulp.  This  is  called  "cold  grinding."  When  the 
wood  is  ground  with  little  water  the  fiber  is  longer  and 
coarser  and  is  called  "hot  ground."  This  is  because 
the  friction  between  the  wood  and  the  grindstone 
against  which  it  is  held  creates  a  great  deal  of  heat 
which  the  water  reduces. 

The  grindstones  used  in  this  process  are  usually 
about  54  inches  in  diameter  and  24  inches  thick  with 
a  ridged  or  "burred"  surface.  Each  stone  is  mounted 
on  a  shaft  and  revolves  within  an  iron  casing.  On  the 
upper  side  of  the  machine  there  are  three  compartments 
into  which  the  wood  is  put  and  pressed  against  the 
grindstone  by  means  of  hydraulic  piston  heads. 

The  quality  and  rapidity  of  production  of  mechani- 
cal pulp  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  wood,  the  rate 
of  growth,  and  moisture  content,  as  well  as  upon  the 
surface  of  the  stone  and  the  temperature  of  grinding. 
If  the  pulp  is  ground  too  cold  it  will  consist  of  small 
bundles  of  fibers  which  will  not  "felt"  properly.     If 


i^ 


If 


30    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

it  is  too  hot  the  stock  is  burned  and  made  lifeless.  At 
the  best  the  fibers  are  so  broken  and  cut  that  me- 
chanical pulp  is  not  fit  to  make  into  paper  unless  mixed 
with  sulphite  or  other  chemical  pulps.  The  poor 
quality  of  the  paper  made  during  the  war  was  due 
to  the  lack  of  chemicals  which  caused  paper-makers  to 
omit  the  addition  of  the  stronger  pulps. 

Adapting  Process  to  Other  Varieties  of  Trees 

Spruce  is  used  for  making  mechanical  pulp  because 
it  has  a  long  tough  fiber  which  will  stand  the  rough 
treatment.  Hemlock  is  so  much  softer  that  it  is  ground 
to  powder,  and  the  other  coniferous  trees  are  either 
too  short  fibered  or  contain  pitch  which  would  injure 
the  grinding  surface  and  spoil  the  pulp.  Recent  ex- 
periments with  jack  pine  show  that  the  pitch  may  be 
removed  by  steaming  and  soaking  and  this  wood  will 
then  yield  as  much  pulp  as  spruce  in  proportion  to  its 
bone  dry  weight.  The  fiber  of  the  jack  pine  is  very 
much  like  that  of  spruce.  Though  the  hemlock  fiber 
is  short  and  soft  it  may  be  made  into  mechanical 
pulp  by  dulling  the  ridges  on  the  grinding  stones.  The 
increased  use  of  these  two  woods  would  save  spruce 
for  the  more  valuable  sulphite  pulp. 

Screening  and  Pressing 

After  grinding,  the  pulp  is  run  through  a  series  of 


^i 


II 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  PULP  31 

screens  to  remove  chips  and  any  other  coarse  material. 
If  it  is  to  be  used  at  once  for  making  paper  it  is 
deprived  of  part  of  the  water  by  passing  it  over  a 
wire  cylinder.    The  pulp  adheres  to  the  wire  and  the 
water  drains  through,  leaving  a  thin  coating  which 
is  scraped  off  and  pumped  directly  to  the  beater,  where 
the  process  is  continued  as  described  in  Chapter  IV. 
If  the  pulp  is  to  be  sent  to  another  mill  for  the  final 
processes,  it  is  put  into  the  "wet  machine"  which  picks 
it  up  on  a  felt  and  carries  it  between  press  rolls  which 
squeeze  the  water  out.    It  is  then  cut  off  from  the  top 
press  roll  and  the  pieces  are  folded  lengthwise  and 
across  into  laps  (folded  sheets)  ready  for  shipment. 

Sulphite  Pulp 

The  sulphite  process  is  still  the  most  important 
method  of  making  chemical  wood  pulp.  The  process 
was  patented  in  1867  by  B.  C.  Tilghman  of  Phil- 
adelphia  but  it  did  not  become  practical  from  a  com^ 
mercial  point  of  view  until  improvements  had  been 
made  by  inventors  of  several  different  countries 

Sidney  D.  Wells  of  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory 
reports  that  in  1921,  70  per  cent  of  sulphite  pulp  was 
made  from  spruce  and  fir,  26  per  cent  from  hemlock, 
2  per  cent  from  poplar,  and  2  per  cent  from  all  other 
species.  Trees  ranging  from  70  to  80  years  old  are 
considered  the  best  for  the  purpose. 


(^ 


*w 


32    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Preparation  of  Wood 

The  logs  are  cut  into  either  2-  or  4-foot  lengths  and 
the  bark  removed  by  a  tumbling  drum  and  barking 
machine.  They  are  then  put  into  a  machine  called  a 
"chipper"  which  cuts  them  into  slices  %  of  an  inch 
thick.  The  chipper  is  a  flat- faced  iron  disk  weighing 
about  three  tons  strongly  mounted  on  a  shaft  in  a 
heavy  iron  frame. 

On  the  inner  face  of  the  disk  are  several  knives  set 
at  such  an  angle  that  as  the  wood  is  pressed  against 
them  they  slice  off  thin  sections  obliquely,  thus  ex- 
posing more  pores  for  the  acid  to  penetrate  than  if  the 
cut  were  made  across  the  grain.  The  chips  are  broken 
into  small  pieces  in  a  crusher  and  finally  screened,  to 
reduce  them  to  a  uniform  size,  and  then  carried  by 
a  chip  conveyor  on  an  endless  belt  to  the  chip  bins  at 
the  top  of  the  digester  building. 

Digesters 

Digesters  are  boilers  in  which  paper  stock  is 
"cooked"  into  pulp. 

The  usual  form  of  digester  for  the  sulphite  process 
is  a  tall  cylindrical  container  made  of  steel  plate  but 
lined  with  one  or  two  layers  of  acid-proof  brick  in 
order  to  protect  the  steel  from  destruction  by  the 
sulphuric  acid  which  is  used  to  disintegrate  the  wood. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  PULP 


33 


Digesters  run  from  10  to  15  feet  in  diameter  and  30 
to  50  feet  in  height. 

The  cover  or  "head"  of  the  digester  is  lifted  by  a 
chain  when  the  chips  are  poured  in  and  then  bolted 
down.  A  system  of  pipes  at  the  top  supplies  the  acid 
and  another  system  near  the  base  is  used  to  introduce 
steam.  The  cooking  liquor  consists  of  sulphurous 
acid  and  lime  and  is  usually  made  in  an  acid  plant 
at  the  mill.^ 


I 


Cooking  and  Screening  Sulphite  Pulp 

The  stock  is  allowed  to  cook  about  8  hours  and 
then  blown  or  forced  into  a  blow  pit,  which  is  a  wooden 
or  concrete  tank  holding  twice  as  much  material  as  the 
digester.  In  the  blow  pit  the  acid  is  washed  out  of 
the  stock  with  clean  water,  which  filters  through  the 
mass,  carrying  the  acid  with  it,  and  escapes  through 
holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  The  stock  is  so  nearly 
dry  that  is  must  be  thinned  with  water  before  it  can 
be  pumped  into  the  stock  vat,  where  it  is  stirred  with 
an  agitator  and  then  passes  through  a  "knotter,"  an 
enclosed  revolving  screen  through  which  the  knots  and 

» The  acid  plant  is  an  important  part  of  a  sulphite  miTl.  Most  of  the 
American  sulphur  is  obtained  in  Louisiana  in  a  very  pure  form  Lime- 
stone is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  sulphur  is  burned 
in  sulphur  burners  with  an  excess  of  oxygen,  forming  sulphur  dioxide,  and 
when  the  gas  has  cooled  it  is  either  driven  into  tall  concrete  towers  filled 
with  limestone,  or  into  a  series  of  tanks  containing  lime  and  hot  water.  The 
resukant    liquid    consists    of    lime    and    magnesia    bisulphites    and    sulphur 


34    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

other  undigested  matter  cannot  go.  The  stock  then 
flows  or  is  pumped  to  the  riffling  tank,  a  long  wooden 
sluice  with  raised  bars  over  which  the  pulp  flows 
leaving  the  heavier  particles  on  its  way.  It  passes 
through  one  more  shaker  screen  and  then  goes  either  to 
the  wet  machine  or  to  a  thickener  called  a  "decker." 

The  Decker  and  Wet  Machine 

The  decker  is  a  deep  wooden  vat  containing  a  revolv- 
ing wire  cylinder  over  which  is  a  roll  covered  with  felt, 
called  a  "couch  roll."  As  the  cylinder  revolves,  the 
pulp  is  drawn  against  it  by  suction  and  the  water 
drains  through  the  wire.  The  cylinder  carries  the 
pulp  under  the  couch  roll  where  more  water  is  pressed 
out.  The  thickened  stock  is  scraped  from  it  with  a 
knife  attached  to  the  roll  and  drops  back  into  the  vat 
from  which  it  is  pumped  to  the  wet  machine,  where 
another  wire  cylinder  picks  it  up  and  carries  it  to  a 
traveling  felt.  As  the  felt  passes  under  a  wooden  roll 
the  water  is  pressed  out,  so  that  the  pulp  seems  quite 
solid,  though  it  still  contains  nearly  60  per  cent  of 
water.  It  adheres  to  this  roll  until  several  layers  are 
formed.  Then  it  is  cut  off  and  folded  and  stored  or 
sent  to  the  paper  mill. 

Characteristics  of  Sulphite  Pulp 
The  appearance  of  sulphite  pulp  under  the  micro- 


A — Spruce  Sulphite  Pulp 


B— Soda  Pulp 


C — Hemlock  Ground  Wood  Pulp 
Figure  3.     Wood  Pulp  Fibers  Highly  Magnified 

Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  PULP  35 

scope  is  quite  different  from  soda  or  sulphate  pulp. 
The  fibers  are  longer  and  cleaner  looking  and  there  is 
far  less  short  material.     (See  Figure  3.) 

Sulphite  pulp  alone  makes  a  hard  and  nearly  trans- 
parent paper.  It  is  usually  combined  with  other  pulps 
For  newsprint  it  is  mixed  with  mechanical  pulp  in  the 
ratio  of  I  to  4,  thus  supplying  the  necessary  strength 
and  firmness.  For  medium  grades  of  writing  paper  it 
•s  mixed  with  rag  pulp,  and  for  book  and  magazine 
paper  with  soda  pulp.  ^ 

Soda  Pulp 

The  soda  process  is  simpler  than  the  sulphite  It 
was  invented  in  1853  and  patented  in  1854  by  Charles 
Wat^  and  Hugh  Burgess.  It  has  been  improved  and 
developed  by  French  and  English  manufacturers. 
Many  more  varieties  of  trees  are  available  for  this 
process  and  the  wood  need  not  be  so  carefully  prepared 
because  the  alkali  used  will  dissolve  all  elements  in  it 
except  the  cellulose.    Though  nearly  all  kinds  of  wood 

""7.^  "'.   :.  '^'  ^'°'^''  ''  "^"^"y  ^^^tricted  to  the 
soft-fibered   deciduous  trees,  such  as  poplar,   aspen 
willow,  and  similar  varieties.  ^  ' 

Preparation 

The  logs  are  barked  as  for  the  sulphite  process  but 
It  IS  not  necessary  to  use  such  care  that  no  small  pieces 


36    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

of  bark  are  left  because  they  are  dissolved  by  the 
strong  alkali.  After  barking,  the  logs  are  chipped  into 
slices  y2  inch  thick  and  broken  smaller  by  means  of  a 
shredder,  after  which  they  are  passed  over  screens  to 
remove  dust  and  foreign  matter. 

Digestion  or  Cooking 

The  digesters  for  soda  pulp  are  sometimes  round 
or  egg-shaped  and  constructed  so  that  they  rotate 
during  the  cooking  process,  but  they  are  now  more 
often  of  the  stationary  cylindrical  type  used  for 
sulphite,  but  unlined,  as  the  alkali  does  not  attack 
steel. 

The  screened  chips  are  loaded  into  the  digester  from 
the  top  and  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  (NaOH)  is 
added  to  the  charge.  Live  steam  is  introduced  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  where  the  cooking  liquor  naturally 
settles,  and  as  this  rises  it  carries  the  liquor  up  with  it 
and  sprays  it  over  the  mass  of  chips. 

The  cooking  process  takes  8  hours  or  more  and 
reduces  the  wood  to  a  pulpy  mass  which  is  blown  into 
the  blow  pit,  and  from  this  transferred  to  the  washing 
pans  where  the  strong  * 'black  liquors"  are  drained  off 
and  the  pulp  is  washed  first  with  weak  black  liquors, 
the  washings  of  previous  cooks,  and  then  with  clean, 
hot  water. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  PULP 


37 


Recovery  of  Chemicals 

The  drainings  and  first  washing  waters  of  soda  pulp 
are  afterward  evaporated  and  calcined  (treated  with 
lime)  to  recover  the  chemicals.  Between  8o  and  90 
per  cent  of  the  total  amount  used  may  be  reclaimed  in 
this  way. 

The  washed  pulp  is  then  diluted  with  water  and 
run  over  screens  so  that  any  uncooked  parts  may  be 
taken  out.  It  is  then  bleached  (see  page  40)  (nearly 
all  soda  pulp  is  bleached),  run  through  the  wet  ma- 
chine, for  storage  or  shipment,  or  put  through  the 
paper-making  process  immediately. 

Soda  pulp  is  too  soft  to  be  successfully  used  alone. 
When  combined  with  long-fibered  sulphite  it  gives 
softness,  bulk,  and  opacity,  while  the  sulphite  gives 
strength. 

Sulphate  Pulp 

The  sulphate  process  was  invented  in  Sweden  about 
1880  but  was  only  introduced  into  this  country  a  short 
time  ago.  It  has  been  used  almost  exclusively  for 
making  kraft  papers  (see  Chapter  VIII)  for  wrap- 
pings, bags,  and  similar  uses.  It  is  a  modification  of 
the  soda  process,  caustic  soda  (NaOH)  and  sodium 
sulphide  (NaS)  being  employed  in  the  cooking  liquors 
instead  of  caustic  soda  alone.  The  equipment  for  the 
two  processes  is  similar  except  that  the  reclaiming  of 


Ii?i 


38    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

the  cooking  liquors  is  more  complicated.     From  2j^ 
to  6^  hours  are  required  for  cooking. 

Since  the  sulphate  process  has  been  used  only  for 
papers  requiring  strength,  the  long-fibered  coniferous 
trees  have  supplied  the  pulp  for  it,  but  recent  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  any  wood  can  be  reduced  by 
this  method.  The  presence  of  knots  and  bark  or  of 
resinous  matter  offers  no  difficulties  and  the  pulp  can 
be  bleached  successfully.  More  severe  cooking  is  re- 
quired for  the  bleached  pulp  and  the  process  is  still  in 
the  experimental  stage,  but  it  is  believed  that  the  ton- 
nage of  sulphate  pulp  will  increase  rapidly  as  its 
advantages  are  more  widely  recognized. 

Cotton  Linters 

Cotton  linters  are  reduced  to  pulp  by  methods 
similar  to  those  used  for  wood  but  they  produce  a 
longer  fiber  and  therefore  make  a  stronger  paper.  The 
fiber  length  of  spruce  sulphite  is  less  than  3mm.,  while 
the  length  of  linter  fiber  is  from  3  to  5mm.  and  of 
hull  fiber  and  shavings  2mm.  Aspen  soda  pulp  has 
a  fiber  length  of  imm.  or  less. 

Processes 

For  linters  without  hull  fiber  the  soda  process  is 
used  and  the  equipment  is  the  same  as  for  wood.  The 
consumption  of  caustic  soda  is  less  than  half  of  that 


ifi 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  PULP 


39 


required  for  wood  and  only  about  one-sixth  of  the 
bleaching  powder  is  required.  The  hulls  need  a  some- 
what different  treatment  with  a  larger  amount  of 
chemical. 

The  sulphate  process  has  also  been  tried  with  hull 
fibers.  A  larger  yield  of  pulp  was  obtained  and  less 
bleach  required.  This  process  seems  to  remove  the 
non-cellulose  matter  with  less  effect  on  the  fiber. 

Various  grades  of  paper  have  been  made  from 
linter  pulps.  The  stock  can  be  used  for  bond,  ledger, 
writing,  book,  blotting,  and  other  high-grade  papers, 
releasing  wood  pulp  for  newsprint,  boards,  etc.  The 
manufacture  could  be  stabilized  and  costs  estimated 
much  more  accurately  than  the  supplies  of  soft  rags, 
which  are  dependent  on  the  rag  dealers.  An  interesting 
experiment  with  blotting  paper  made  from  the  hull 
fiber  showed  that  it  was  more  absorbent  than  all-rag 
paper. 


Bagasse 

The  non-fibrous  waste  from  sugar  cane  is  cooked 
by  the  Lee  process  in  which  a  low-grade  molasses  is 
hydrated  (combined  with  the  elements  of  water)  by 
boiling  it  with  lime.  The  cooking  toughens  the 
cellulose  so  that  it  can  be  used  for  pulp,  though  it 
has  very  little  fiber  in  it.  This  pulp  is  manufactured 
into  paper  boards. 


lii. 


40    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Waste  Paper 

Waste  paper  is  reduced  to  pulp  by  various  defibering 
processes,  washed,  bleached,  and  repulped,  but  not 
"beaten''  again.  There  are  now  machines  for  re- 
moving the  ink  from  waste  paper  at  the  same  time  that 
the  fibers  are  softened  and  separated. 

Bleaching 

As  was  stated  earlier  (page  2y)j  pulp  made  from 
rags  is  bleached  in  order  to  remove  dyes  or  other 
coloring  matter,  but  the  process  is  quite  simple.  The 
bleaching  agent  is  put  into  the  boiler  when  the  cooking 
process  is  nearly  complete  and  the  surplus  bleach  is 
disposed  of  with  other  impurities  in  the  washer. 

For  bleaching  wood  pulp,  esparto,  or  straw  pulps 
the  agent  is  usually  some  compound  of  chlorine,  as 
for  rags,  but  the  amount  required  is  much  greater  and 
the  equipment  is  more  complicated  because  the  color 
is  chemically  combined  with  the  fiber.  The  equip- 
ment for  these  other  materials  consists  of  a  series 
of  tanks  with  agitators  to  keep  the  stock  in  motion 
during  the  oxidizing  or  bleaching  process,  which  takes 
a  number  of  hours. 

It  is  estimated  that,  whereas  from  2  to  5  pounds  of 
bleach  are  required  to  bleach  100  pounds  of  rags,  the 
same  quantity  of  esparto  takes  from  10  to  15  pounds 
and  sulphite  spruce  from  15  to  25  pounds.    An  electro- 


MANUFACTURE  OP  PAPER  PULP 


41 


XyiXc  process  is  now  used  in  many  mills  instead  of 
bleaching  powder.  Ground  wood  pulp  is  still  more 
difficult  to  bleach  because  it  contains  all  the  coloring 
matter  of  the  original  wood  and  it  never  becomes  so 
brilliantly  white  as  sulphite  pulp. 


Chapter  IV 
CONVERTING  PULP  INTO  PAPER 

Beaters  or  "Hollanders" 

The  real  making  of  paper  begins  in  the  beating 
machine  where  all  pulp,  whatever  its  source,  is  given 
the  same  kind  of  treatment. 

The  beating  machine,  often  called  a  "Hollander" 
because  invented  in  that  country,  is  an  oval,  tank- 
like container  made  of  heavy  wood,  iron,  or  concrete, 
25  feet  being  a  common  length.  (See  Figure  4.) 
A  machine  of  this  size  holds  from  1,600  to  1,800 
pounds  of  pulp. 

Construction  of  "Hollander" 

A  partition,  called  a  mid  feather,  extends  through 
the  middle  of  the  tank,  but  a  space  of  3  or 
4  feet  at  each  end  is  left  open  so  that  the  pulp 
can  circulate  freely.  In  the  most  common  form  of 
beater  there  is  a  cylindrical  "beater  roll"  on  one 
side  of  the  partition  which  is  surrounded  by  78 
blunt  knives  or  bars  from  >4  to  J^  inch  in  thickness. 
The  bottom  of  the  tank  has  a  bed  plate  under  this  roll 


MAKING  PULP  INTO  PAPER 


43 


with  42  similar  knives,  set  in  such  a  way  that  they 
cross  the  knives  in  the  roll  diagonally;  as  the  two  sets 
come  in  contact  they  separate  and  draw  out  the  fibers 
with  a  shearing  or  pulling  action.  This  pulling  of  the 
fibers  also  serves  to  make  them  curl  at  the  ends  and 
felt  or  mat  together  as  the  beating  continues. 

Besides  pulling  the  fibers  apart  the  blunt  knives  cut 
the  longer  ones,  reducing  them  to  a  more  uniform 
size.  While  the  strength  of  any  paper  is  largely 
dependent  on  the  length  of  the  fibers  composing  it, 
they  must  not  be  too  long  or  they  will  not  felt  properly 
on  the  paper-making  machine. 

The  beater  roll  is  very  heavy,  weighing  several  tons, 
but  it  can  be  raised  or  lowered  to  exactly  the  right 
distance  from  the  bed  plate  by  means  of  bars  which  are 
regulated  with  a  hand-wheel.  In  the  case  of  fine 
papers  the  pressure  must  not  be  too  great  at  first,  the 
beating  is  slower  and  less  severe,  sometimes  taking  six 
hours.  Heavy  papers  may  be  given  sharper  treatment 
and  require  less  time. 

Stock  or  Stuff  Chests 

Stock  or  "stuff"  chests  are  storage  tanks  In  which 
the  pulp  is  stored  before  it  is  furnished  to  the  beater. 
In  this  state  it  is  often  called  "half  stuff.'*  Other  tanks 
are  provided  for  the  beaten  stock  where  it  remains 
from  five  days  to  two  weeks  for  "ripening."    It  is  kept 


>; 


tr 


t 

li 


m- 


44    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

in  constant  motion  during  this  period  by  means  of 
revolving  paddles  or  agitators  and  from  these  chests 
goes  to  the  paper  machine  or  to  the  Jordan  engine  where 
it  is  still  further  refined. 

The  Jordan  Engine 

The  Jordan  engine  (see  Figure  5)  consists  of 
a  conical  shell  which  is  fitted  with  knives  running 
lengthwise  along  its  inner  surface  and  a  plug  of  the 
same  shape  as  the  shell  carrying  a  similar  set  of  knives 
on  its  outer  surface.  The  plug  fits  so  closely  in  the 
shell  that  a  very  small  space  is  left  for  the  pulp  when  it 
is  forced  in  at  the  smaller  end.  As  it  passes  through 
the  cone  the  plug  is  rotated  swiftly  and  the  two  sets 
of  knives  divide  the  fibers  still  more  finely  and  make 
the  stock  perfectly  consistent. 

The  Furnish 

The  materials  for  making  a  certain  grade  of  paper 
are  mixed  in  the  beater  according  to  an  exact  formula. 
This  is  called  the  **furnish/'  and  after  the  proper 
combination  for  a  certain  grade  of  paper  has  been 
determined  it  must  not  vary  in  any  particular. 

Nearly  all  papers  are  made  from  mixed  pulps.  Fine 
writing  or  ledger  papers  are  made  from  all-rag  or  rag 
and  sulphite  or  soda  pulps.  Cotton  linters  are  being 
substituted  for  rags  at  some  mills.  For  book  paper 
sulphite  and  soda  pulp  are  combined  in  varying  quanti- 


Figure  4.     A  Beating  Machine 


IV  '\ 


Figure  5.     Jordan  Engine 


MAKING  PULP  INTO  PAPER 


4S 


ties  with  some  rag  pulp  in  the  better  grades  and  ground 
wood  pulp  in  the  cheaper  ones.  Esparto  is  much  used 
in  English  books. 

Sulphate  kraft  is  the  basis  of  strong  wrapping  and 
bag  papers.  It  is  combined  with  sulphite,  ground 
wood,  and  waste  paper  pulp  in  varying  quantities. 
Newsprint  is  a  mixture  of  sulphite  and  mechanical 
pulp  in  the  ratio  of  i  to  4. 

The  quantity  of  each  kind  of  pulp  for  the  "furnish" 
desired  is  determined  according  to  its  "bone  dry" 
weight.  The  other  ingredients  are  dyes  or  coloring 
matter,  loading  or  filling,  and  size. 

Dyeing 

Even  though  well  bleached,  white  papers  are  colored 
in  order  to  tone  the  pulp  and  to  correct  the  yellow  tint. 
Cream  papers  are  brightened  and  enriched  by  the 
addition  of  ultramarine  and  carnation.  Cover  papers 
and  tissues  are  dyed  in  the  piece,  but  writing  and  print- 
ing papers  have  the  color  added  to  the  pulp  during  the 
beating  process. 

The  principles  for  dyeing  paper  are  practically  the 
same  as  those  for  dyeing  cotton  and  linen  textile  fibers. 
Consequently,  most  paper  pulp  must  be  first  treated 
with  a  mordant  before  the  coloring  matter  will 
thoroughly  combine  with  the  fiber.  Alum  in  some 
cases  serves  this  purpose. 


I 


f 


i 


I- 


':^' 


It 


I- 


p 


46    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

A  mordant  is  a  chemical  substance  used  to  fix  colors. 
Vegetable  fibers  particularly  need  this  treatment,  in 
order  that  they  may  combine  with  and  hold  the  dye. 
Materials  may  be  mordanted  first,  then  dyed,  or  the 
mordant  may  be  combined  with  the  dye.  (For  a  more 
extended  treatment  of  dyeing  see  manual  on  "Cotton 
and  Linen.") 

Coloring  Matters 

The  coloring  matters  used  may  be : 
Natural  dyes 

1.  Mineral    pigments,    such    as    "smalts"    or 

Prussian  blue. 

2.  Soluble  colors 

(a)  Animal  dyes,  such  as  cochineal  in  liquid 
or  "lac"  for  pinks. 

(b)  Vegetable  dyes,  such  as  logwood  for 
violet,  lavender,  and  black;  brazilwood 
for  red  or  orange  brown. 

3.  Artificial  or  aniline  dyes  made  from  coal  tar. 

Characteristics  of  Different  Dyes 

Most  papers  are  now  colored  with  aniline  dyes, 
which  are  reasonably  stable  and  cheap  and  afford  a 
great  variety  of  colors.  Only  in  the  highest  grades  of 
writing  paper  and  in  a  few  papers  that  must  remain 


MAKING  PULP  INTO  PAPER 


47 


"  fast "  when  exposed  to  light  are  the  natural  dyes 
employed.  Much  skill  is  required  in  mixing  the  color- 
ing matter  evenly  with  the  fiber  in  order  to  insure 
uniform  color.  Blue  and  sometimes  a  small  amount 
of  red  is  required  even  for  white  papers  in  order  to 
correct  the  yellow  tint.  Delicate  tints  are  more  expen- 
sive than  deeper  colors,  not  only  because  the  colors 
themselves  are  more  difficult  to  prepare,  but  also 
because  a  better  quality  of  paper  is  required  to  take 
these  tints  evenly.  Papers  colored  with  pigments  are 
likely  to  be  darker  on  one  side  than  the  other  as  the 
suction  in  drying  tends  to  draw  the  small  particles  of 
color  to  one  side  of  the  sheet. 

The  less  expensive  papers  usually  have  chemical 
wood  pulp  and  esparto  added  to  the  rag  pulp ;  but  when 
fibers  are  mixed  in  this  way  the  paper-maker  has  a 
difficult  problem,  as  the  different  fibers  have  different 
affinities  for  the  coloring  matter.  This  he  must  pro- 
vide for.  He  must  consider  the  use  to  which  the  paper 
will  be  put  and  whether  it  should  be  "  fast "  to  light, 
moisture,  or  chemical  agencies ;  also  he  must  remember 
that  some  colors  darken  in  drying  and  others  fade. 

Dyeing  to  match  a  certain  shade  is  difficult  because 
of  the  uncertain  effect  of  coloring  matter  on  some  of 
the  paper  materials,  as  well  as  the  character  of  the 
fibers  and  coloring  matters  themselves.  The  drying 
operation  also  affects  color.     Materials  and  properties 


'V. 


48    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

must  be  well  understood.  Samples  of  colored  pulp  must 
be  compared  with  the  moistened  sample.  Often  the 
coloring  matter  must  be  added  several  times  before 
the  exact  color  of  the  sample  is  obtained. 

A  diffused  daylight  is  the  best  light  in  which  to  judge 
color  as  under  artificial  light  white  paper  appears 
yellow;  yellow  more  nearly  white;  red  more  pro- 
nounced ;  blue  and  violet,  greener  and  darker ;  and  light 
blue,  greener  and  yellowish. 

Loading  or  Filling 

Various  materials  are  added  to  the  paper  pulp  in 
order  to  fill  the  pores  and  give  the  paper  a  smoother 
surface  or  finish,  to  increase  its  weight,  and  to  make 
it  more  opaque.  Loading  is  run  into  the  beater  and 
mixed  with  the  pulp  while  both  are  in  liquid  form. 

The  substance  most  commonly  used  is  china  clay 
which  is  pure,  light,  and  absorbent.  This  is  used  for 
newspapers  and  the  cheaper  grades  of  periodicals  and 
books.  It  enables  paper  to  take  ink  more  readily,  but 
if  improperly  strained  it  forms  pin  holes  and  makes  the 
paper  less  capable  of  resisting  dampness  and  ordinary 
usage. 

For  the  finer  grades  the  substances  used  are : 

I.  Sulphate  of  calcium  or  pearl  hardening,  which 
gives  brilliancy  to  fine  writing  paper  and  also 
imparts  a  purity  of  shade. 


MAKING  PULP  INTO  PAPER 


49 


2.  Barytes  or  blanc  fixe,  a  white  clay  used  as 

a  filler  and  as  one  of  the  materials  in  satin 
white. 

3.  Satin  white,  a  combination  of  alumina  and  sul- 

phate of  lime  used  for  coated  papers. 

4.  Magnesia,  which  gives  a  peculiar  soapy  feeling. 

5.  Starch,  which  resists  moisture  and  gives  a  high 

polish. 

The  choice  of  loading  or  filling  material  must  be 
determined  by  the  character  of  the  pulp,  the  color  of 
the  paper,  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed. 
Defects  in  paper  may  be  due  to  spots  and  specks  caused 
by  sand,  dirt,  knots  of  fiber,  or  lumps  of  the  mineral 
matter  used  for  filling  or  coloring  matter. 

Filling  is  also  added  to  the  cheaper  grades  of  paper 
as  an  adulteration.  All  cheap  fillers  weaken  the  paper, 
as  they  lessen  its  resistance  to  wear.  For  an  uncoated 
paper  10  per  cent  is  the  maximum  amount  of  filler 
allowed. 

Fillers  are  of  benefit  in  coloring  as  they  combine 
readily  with  the  pigments  and  therefore  are  usually 
added  after  the  dyeing  but  before  the  sizing. 

Sizing 

Sizing  makes  the  paper  impervious  to  moisture,  binds 
the  fibers  together,  and  gives  a  smooth  finish  which 


'  >i 


I 


I'^f 


50    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

prevents  the  ink  from  settling  into  the  written  page. 
Blotting  papers  are  purposely  left  soft  and  absorbent. 

In  the  modern  paper  industry  the  method  used  is 
"  engine-sizing,"  a  method  by  which  the  sizing  is  mixed 
with  the  pulp  in  the  beater  machine.  The  early  paper 
maker  dipped  his  sheet  of  dried  pulp  into  a  tub  or 
barrel  of  "  size." 

The  two  kinds  of  sizing  are : 

1.  Animal  size,  which  is  made  of  gelatin  or  glue 

and  is  used  for  hand-made  and  good  writing 
paper. 

2.  Vegetable  size  which  is  made  of  resin  or  rosin 

(from  the  sap  of  certain  fir  and  pine  trees) 
boiled  with  carbonate  of  soda  and  is  used  for 
printing  paper  and  also  for  cheap  writing 
paper. 

Alum  is  used  to  fix  the  size  but  in  highly  colored 
papers  it  tends  to  cause  fading. 

Tub-Sizing 

Some  papers  are  "  tub-sized  "  as  well  as  "  engine- 
sized."  These  are  the  higher  grades  of  writing  paper, 
the  engine-sizing  being  sufficient  for  the  ordinary  book 
and  cheaper  writing  papers.  As  tub-sizing  is  a  sepa- 
rate process  it,  of  course,  adds  to  the  expense.  Such 
papers  while  still  wet  are  passed  through  a  tub  or  vat 


MAKING  PULP  INTO  PAPER 


51 


filled  with  a  liquid  sizing  made  of  gelatin  mixed  in  a 
solution  with  alum. 

Tub  and  animal-sized  papers  become  soft  with  age 
as  the  gelatin  is  acted  on  by  the  moisture  of  the  air, 
and  so  should  be  kept  dry.  Very  heavily  sized  papers 
are  also  spoiled  by  the  dry  heat  of  steam  pipes. 


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Chapter  V 

FINISHING  THE  PAPER 

Hand-Made  Paper 

The  process  of  converting  the  pulp  from  the  stuff 
chest  into  paper  can  be  best  understood  by  first  describ- 
ing the  hand-made  papers. 

All  paper  was  originally  made  by  hand.  After  the 
fibers  had  been  separated  by  decomposition  they  were 
beaten  in  a  small  vat  and  the  pulp  was  dipped  out  by  a 
"  mold,"  a  wooden  frame  with  a  fine  wire  screen  at  the 
bottom,  and  a  movable  frame  called  a  "  deckle  "  which 
fitted  tightly  into  it  determined  the  width  of  the  paper. 
The  arrangement  of  the  wires  in  the  mold  determined 
the  appearance  of  the  paper. 

Three  men  were  required  for  the  operation  of 
"  laying  " :  a  "  vatman,"  a  "  coucher,**  and  a  "  layer 
man."  The  first  dipped  the  mold  into  the  pulp,  taking 
up  the  amount  required  for  a  sheet  of  the  desired 
weight  and  thickness.  The  mold  was  then  shaken 
from  side  to  side  in  order  to  cause  the  fibers  to  felt  or 
adhere  together,  and  to  allow  the  water  to  drain  away. 
The  edge  of  the  paper  pulp  pressed  down  by  the  deckle 

52 


FINISHING  THE  PAPER 


53 


was  rough  and  uneven.  In  cutting  the  paper  this  edge 
was  usually  removed,  but  if  left  on  the  paper  it  was 
called  "  deckle-edged."  The  deckle  was  removed  and 
the  coucher  then  pressed  the  mold  against  a  sheet  of 
felt  to  which  the  paper  adhered  and  covered  it  with 
another  sheet  of  felt.  When  a  pile  or  "  post "  of  these 
sheets  was  made  it  was  put  under  heavy  pressure. 
Then  the  **  layerman  "  removed  the  sheets  of  paper 
from  the  pile  of  felt  sheets  and  again  put  them  into  the 
press.  The  moist  sheets  were  finally  hung  up  to  dry 
on  poles  in  a  large  loft  or  drying  room.  Hand-made 
paper  was  tub-sized  after  the  first  drying  process. 

The  Water  Mark 

The  water  mark  was  produced  by  weaving  a  pattern 
on  the  wire  screen  of  the  mold.  The  layer  of  fibers 
was  thinner  over  this  pattern  and  made  the  paper  more 
translucent. 

The  history  of  the  water  mark  is  interesting.  Many 
varieties  of  modem  papers  took  their  names  from  these 
early  marks.  Foolscap,  Crown,  Post,  Pott,  and  other 
names  probably  originated  in  this  way.  The  cap  and 
bells,  crown,  post,  horn,  and  tankard  were  used  as 
water  marks.  A  ram's  horn  in  the  water  mark  was 
found  in  a  book  of  accounts  dated  1330.  In  1649  the 
water  mark  of  the  finest  English  paper  bore  the  royal 
arms,  but  later  in  the  time  of  Charles  I,  a  fool's  cap 


i    1- 

il' 

r  . 


54     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

with  bells  was  substituted  for  the  king*s  arms.  The 
original  purpose  of  the  marks  was  to  add  distinction. 
Later  they  were  used  to  prevent  forgery  of  valuable 
documents  or  notes.  Today  they  are  used  largely  to 
designate  the  manufacturer  rather  than  to  distinguish 
the  paper  itself.  A  notable  example  of  the  original  use 
of  the  water  mark  to  denote  quality  of  paper  and  add 
distinction  is  Crane's  Distaff  Linen,  which  has  a  distaff 
for  a  mark. 

Length  of  Time  of  Process 

The  finer  imported  stationery  is  still  made  by  the 
careful  hand  process.  A  very  small  amount  is  made 
in  the  United  States. 

By  this  method  it  takes  three  men  a  day  to  mold, 
press,  and  hang  up  to  dry  or  finish  four  thousand  small 
sheets  of  paper  while  the  process  from  beginning  to 
end  requires  about  three  months.  Today  paper  can 
be  made  in  twenty- four  hours  from  a  tree  standing  in 
the  forest.  Paper  made  by  machinery  differs  from  the 
hand-made  in  that  it  is  a  continuous  sheet. 

Fourdrinier  Machine 

The  Fourdrinier  is  a  complicated  machine  from 
lOO  to  300  feet  long  which  receives  the  pulp  at  one 
end,  called  the  "wet  end,"  and  delivers  it  at  the  other, 


FINISHING  THE  PAPER 


55 


or  "dry  end,"  as  a  continuous  sheet  of  paper  wound  on 
reels  and  ready  for  finishing,  which  in  some  cases 
means  only  rewinding  and  cutting.     (  See  Figure  6. ) 

Newsprint  is  run  at  from  600  to  900  feet  a  minute, 
while  some  other  papers  run  at  a  speed  of  only  200 
feet  a  minute. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  Fourdrinier  machine  are : 

1.  The  head  box,  in  which  the  pulp  and  water 

are  received. 

2.  The  apron,  a  shallow  trough  through  which 

this  mixture  flows  onto  the  wire. 

3.  The  wire,  an  endless  belt  made  of  copper  or 

brass  wire,  about  60  or  70  wires  to  the  inch, 
on  which  the  pulp  is  carried  in  the  first  stage 
of  the  felting  process. 

4.  The  deckle  straps,  made  of  soft  rubber — ^bands 

2  inches  wide  and  2^  inches  thick  running 
on  each  side  of  the  wire  and  determining 
the  width  of  the  paper. 

5.  Brass  tube  rolls,  which  form  a  sort  of  moving 

table  under  the  wire,  supporting  it. 

6.  The  shake  rails  or  the  shake  machine  which 

carries  the  tube  rolls  and  deckle  frames, 
giving  them  a  shaking  motion  which  causes 
the  fibers  to  turn  in  various  directions  in- 
stead of  all  lying  with  their  sides  parallel 


I 


^i 


56     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

with  the  sides  of  the  wire  as  they  flow  in 
the  water. 

7.  Suction  boxes  under  the  table  rolls,  which  are 

made  with  perforated  covers  and  are  con- 
nected with  a  suction  pump;  the  pump  ex- 
hausts the  air  in  the  boxes  and  they  in  turn 
draw  some  of  the  water  from  the  pulp  above. 

8.  The  dandy  roll,  a  wire  cylinder  supported  in 

such  a  way  that  it  rests  lightly  on  the  top  of 
the  pulp,  smoothing  it  and  giving  it  the 
water  mark. 

9.  Couch    rolls,    to    begin    the    pressure    which 

squeezes  the  water  out  of  the  pulp. 

10.  Press  rolls,  like  a  huge  wringer,  for  the  same 

purpose — there  are  usually  three  of  these 
presses. 

11.  Wet  felts,  endless  belts  made  of  woven  woolen 

cloth  with  a  nap  like  a  blanket,  which  receive 
the  wet  sheet  of  paper  from  the  couch  rolls 
and  carry  it  through  the  presses. 

12.  The   dryers,   a   series   of  cast  iron   cylinders 

heated  by  steam,  which  dry  out  the  rest  of 
the  water  (over  65  per  cent)  still  left  in 
the  paper. 

13.  Dryer  felts,  similar  to  the  wet  felts,  only  harder 

and  firmer,  which  carry  the  paper  through 
the  dryers. 


Hi 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


56     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

with  the  sides  of  the  wire  as  they  flow  in 
the  water. 

7.  Suction  boxes  under  the  table  rolls,  which  are 

made  with  perforated  covers  and  are  con- 
nected with  a  suction  pump;  the  pump  ex- 
hausts the  air  in  the  boxes  and  they  in  turn 
draw  some  of  the  water  from  the  pulp  above. 

8.  The  dandy  roll,  a  wire  cylinder  supported  in 

such  a  way  that  it  rests  lightly  on  the  top  of 
the  pulp,  smoothing  it  and  giving  it  the 
water  mark. 

9.  Couch    rolls,    to    begin    the    pressure    which 

squeezes  the  water  out  of  the  pulp. 

10.  Press  rolls,  like  a  huge  wringer,  for  the  same 

purpose — there  are  usually  three  of  these 
presses. 

11.  Wet  felts,  endless  belts  made  of  woven  woolen 

cloth  with  a  nap  like  a  blanket,  which  receive 
the  wet  sheet  of  paper  from  the  couch  rolls 
and  carry  it  through  the  presses. 

12.  The  dryers,  a   series   of  cast  iron   cylinders 

heated  by  steam,  which  dry  out  the  rest  of 
the  water  (over  65  per  cent)  still  left  in 
the  paper. 

13.  Dryer  felts,  similar  to  the  wet  felts,  only  harder 

and  firmer,  which  carry  the  paper  through 
the  dryers. 


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FINISHING  THE  PAPER 


57 


14.  The  calender  rolls,  of  chilled  iron  and  polished 

to  give  the  paper  its  finish. 

15.  Reels  on  which  it  is  wound  as  it  comes  from 

the  calenders. 

There  are  other  features,  some  of  which  are  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  machine,  and  others,  such  as 
suction  rolls  and  smoothing  rolls,  which  do  not  appear 
in  all  machines.  Variations  of  the  Fourdrinier  and 
special  machines  for  certain  kinds  of  paper  are  also 
used,  but  this  is  the  standard  type  with  such  changes 
in  detail  as  the  paper-maker  wishes. 

Time  Required  to  Make  Pulp  into  Paper 

In  spite  of  the  elaborate  machinery  required  to 
change  the  watery  solution  in  which  fibers  are  floating 
freely  into  a  sheet  of  paper,  the  process  takes  a  very 
short  space  of  time.  On  the  high-speed  newsprint  ma- 
chines paper  is  produced  at  the  rate  of  600  or  700  feet 
a  minute,  and  even  the  "slow  pulps"  are  run  at  a  rate 
of  200  feet  a  minute,  or  more. 

Pulp  on  the  Wire 

As  the  pulp  flows  out  of  the  head  box  through  the 
apron  or  trough  the  speed  is  regulated  by  thin  brass 
sheets  running  across  the  trough  a  little  above  the  floor 
which  act  as  dams.    These  are  called  "slices."     The 


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I 


58     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

pulp  and  wire  should  move  at  the  same  speed.  It  is  very 
necessary  that  the  fibers  should  be  crossed  and  inter- 
laced while  the  pulp  is  thin,  and  yet  they  tend  to  float 
with  the  current  with  their  heads  in  one  direction. 
Various  devices  are  used  to  secure  the  interlacing,  the 
most  important  of  these  being  the  shaking  machine, 
which  gives  a  sidewise  motion  to  the  rolls  under  the 
wire  and  keeps  the  pulp  stirred  up. 

The  Deckle  Straps 

As  the  thin  sheet  of  pulp  is  carried  forward  on  the 
wire  the  width  of  the  sheet  is  regulated  by  wide  rubber 
deckle  straps  at  each  side.  These  do  not  make  a  ragged 
edge  as  did  the  old  deckle  frame  but  a  straight  and  even 
one.  For  fine  books  and  stationery  a  stream  of  water 
is  sometimes  played  along  the  edge  to  give  the  ragged 
effect. 

The  Dandy  Roll 

The  dandy  roll,  an  important  part  of  the  Fourdrinier 
machine,  is  a  wire-covered  roll,  whose  wires  are 
arranged  in  various  manners  to  impress  permanently 
on  the  soft  paper  all  water  marks,  patterns,  and  designs. 
In  "wove"  papers  the  rows  of  wires  are  equally  dis- 
tributed, making  a  paper  of  even  texture.  In  "laid" 
papers,  heavier  wires,  placed  at  equal  intervals  cause 
a  translucency  of  the  paper  at  those  places,  because  less 


FINISHING  THE  PAPER 


59 


pulp  lodges  there,  giving  it  a  lined  appearance.    Water 
marking  is  produced  in  the  same  way. 

Passing  to  the  Rolls 

The  wire  carries  the  web  of  paper  to  a  pair  of 
couch  rolls,  the  lower  one  of  which  is  covered  with 
rubber  and  the  upper  one  with  a  jacket  of  wool  over  the 
metal.  Some  of  the  water  is  squeezed  out  between 
these,  and  the  web  passes  to  the  press  rolls,  which  are 
made  of  rubber-covered  metal  and  wood. 

At  the  press  rolls  the  web  is  taken  up  by  the  wet  felt, 
a  belt  of  wool  more  like  a  blanket  than  a  piece  of  felt, 
to  which  the  pulp  clings  during  its  passage  through 
them.  The  paper-making  process  depends  more  on 
this  capacity  of  wool  to  pick  up  the  wet  fiber  and  then 
release  it  without  injury  than  on  any  other  thing.  The 
felts  differ  according  to  the  kind  of  paper  to  be  made. 
For  tissue  paper  the  felt  must  be  finer  and  smoother 
than  for  heavier  grades. 

The  Dryers 

The  last  of  the  water  is  removed  by  the  dryers. 
These  are  steam-heated  cylinders  arranged  in  a  double 
or  triple  row.  The  web  of  paper  is  carried  from  the 
last  press  to  the  dryers  and  threaded  in  and  out  so  that 
it  is  held  tightly  against  the  rolls. 

The  dryers  are  also  equipped  with  felts  on  which 


i    'i:-:^ 


I 


W 


lit 


mm 


60     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

the  paper  travels  around  and  between  the  polished 
steam-heated  rolls  (from  12  to  50  in  number)  until 
it  is  quite  "dry,"  though  it  still  has  from  5  to  10  per 
cent  of  water  in  it. 

The  paper  leaves  the  last  drying  roll  and  goes  to  the 
calender,  which  is  a  stack  of  6  or  8  polished  rolls  set 
upright  one  above  the  other.  The  calenders  really  iron 
out  the  paper,  which  is  then  wound  on  reels.  (See 
Figure  7.)     Two  stacks  of  calenders  are  often  used. 

Not  all  papers  are  machine-dried.  The  higher 
grades  are  dried  by  natural  means  (as  are  the  hand- 
made papers),  very  slowly  and  evenly  in  a  loft  specially 
constructed  for  this  purpose.  The  paper  is  hung  on 
poles  for  several  days  in  a  temperature  of  from  80°  to 
100°  F.  This  allows  a  natural  shrinkage  in  which  the 
fibers  regain  their  elasticity  and  thus  attain  a  maximiun 
strength. 

Calendering  or  Glazing 

The  first  process  is  used  for  book  and  print  papers 
and  the  cheaper  grades  of  stationery.  But  for  spe- 
cially finished  papers  special  calenders  are  employed,  in 
which  the  rollers  run  closer  together  and  with  great 
pressure  so  that  any  degree  of  gloss  can  be  put  on. 
The  more  times  it  is  passed  through,  the  higher  the 
gloss.  This  process  also  reduces  the  thickness  of  the 
sheet  by  about  40  per  cent,  increases  its  strength,  and 


t 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Figure  7.     Rolls  of  Paper 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Figure  8.     Supercalender 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


60     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

the  paper  travels  around  and  between  the  poHshed 
steam-heated  rolls  (from  12  to  50  in  number)  until 
it  is  quite  "dry,"  though  it  still  has  from  5  to  10  per 
cent  of  water  in  it. 

The  paper  leaves  the  last  drying  roll  and  goes  to  the 
calender,  which  is  a  stack  of  6  or  8  polished  rolls  set 
upright  one  above  the  other.  The  calenders  really  iron 
out  the  paper,  which  is  then  wound  on  reels.  (See 
Figure  7.)     Two  stacks  of  calenders  are  often  used. 

Not  all  papers  are  machine-dried.  The  higher 
grades  are  dried  by  natural  means  (as  are  the  hand- 
made papers),  very  slowly  and  evenly  in  a  loft  specially 
constructed  for  this  purpose.  The  paper  is  hung  on 
poles  for  several  days  in  a  temperature  of  from  80°  to 
100°  F.  This  allows  a  natural  shrinkage  in  which  the 
fibers  regain  their  elasticity  and  thus  attain  a  maximum 
strength. 

Calendering  or  Glazing 

The  first  process  is  used  for  book  and  print  papers 
and  the  cheaper  grades  of  stationery.  But  for  spe- 
cially finished  papers  special  calenders  are  employed,  in 
which  the  rollers  run  closer  together  and  with  great 
pressure  so  that  any  degree  of  gloss  can  be  put  on. 
The  more  times  it  is  passed  through,  the  higher  the 
gloss.  This  process  also  reduces  the  thickness  of  the 
sheet  by  about  40  per  cent,  increases  its  strength,  and 


C  uuriLsy  ui  U.  S.  Uepariiiitjni  uf  Agriculture 
Fiji^urc  7.     Rolls  of  Paper 


^^1  #   .  ^  M 

1         '  ^t 

■mm     ^^^^^^*^    -    1^-41 

Y    1 V  x^  ^  '^  '^' '  i 

^^          ^^i^^^^^^^M 

i 

H' 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Figure  8.     Supercalendcr 


FINISHING  THE  PAPER 


61 


generally  improves  it.     Too  much  glazing,  however, 
makes  the  paper  brittle. 

Rewinding  and  Cutting 

The  wound  roll  is  removed  from  the  reel  to  the 
rewinders,  which  may  be  either  straight  or  drum 
winders.  The  straight  type  carries  the  paper  over  a 
roll  and  under  a  set  of  slitters  consisting  of  circular 
knives  bearing  against  the  paper.  The  drum  winders 
roll  the  paper  by  means  of  friction.  Some  rewinders 
cut  the  paper  into  sheets  by  means  of  a  revolving  cross 
knife  and  a  stationary  blade. 

If  the  paper  is  not  to  receive  any  additional  finish  it 
is  now  ready  for  shipment. 

Supercalendering  and  Plating 

Supercalendering  is  a  process  used  to  give  paper  an 
especially  high  or  glossy  surface.  It  is  done  by  passing 
the  paper  through  a  series  of  7,  9,  or  1 1  calenders  made 
of  metal  (chilled  iron)  and  compressed  cotton  or  paper, 
these  calenders  being  arranged  alternately  one  above 
the  other.  The  paper  passes  through  these  calenders 
many  times  and  takes  on  a  smooth,  high  polish. 
Supercalendered  paper  is  used  for  magazine  covers. 
(See  Figure  8.) 

When  a  finish  of  less  glaring  and  more  silky  effect 
is  desired,  another  process  called  plating  is  used.     In 


t       !' 


J 


62     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

this  process  the  paper  is  cut  into  sheets  and  arranged  in 
piles  of  12  to  15  sheets  with  sheets  of  zinc  between 
each.  The  piles  are  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure. 
This  plating  process  is  more  expensive  than  supercal- 
endering. 

Kinds  of  Finish 

In  general,  paper  has  either  a  smooth  or  rough  finish 
called  glazed  or  unglazed.  Different  names  are  applied 
to  distinguish  the  various  degrees  of  roughness  or 
smoothness,  such  as  antique  and  vellum  for  the  former, 
and  kid,  supercalendered,  or  plate  for  the  latter.  The 
finish,  of  course,  depends  upon  the  kind  and  amount 
of  sizing  used,  and  the  method  of  pressing  or  calender- 
ing the  sheet  of  paper  before  it  is  cut  into  the  various 
sizes. 

Coated  Paper 

This  is  made  by  applying  a  mixture  of  china  clay  and 
glue  to  ordinary  paper.  A  fine  quality  of  pure  white 
clay  known  as  **blanc  fixe"  is  used.  The  paper  to  be 
coated  is  passed  through  a  vat  containing  the  solution 
and  then  through  rollers  and  sets  of  camels'  hair 
brushes,  which  regulate  the  thickness  of  the  coating, 
and  is  finally  passed  into  the  drying  room  where  it  is 
dried  in  a  temperature  of  140°  F.  It  is  calendered 
after  drying. 


FINISHING  THE  PAPER 


63 


Dampness  will  affect  the  quality  of  supercalendered 
and  coated  papers,  and  therefore  in  the  stock  room  and 
elsewhere  these  papers  should  be  kept  dry  and  in  a 
well-ventilated  place. 

Glazed  Paper 

This  may  be  produced  by  friction  or  by  flint  after  a 
coating  process  which  resembles  that  described  above 
except  that  wax  is  added  to  the  coating  solution.  In 
the  friction  glazing,  the  paper  passes  between  one 
cotton  and  two  steel  or  chilled  iron  rolls.  One  of  the 
latter  revolves  at  a  greater  speed  than  the  other  and 
burnishes  one  side  of  the  paper.  In  the  flint  glazing,  a 
flint  stone  working  back  and  forth  across  the  sheet 
brings  out  a  brilliant  and  lasting  polish.  The  flint 
glaze  can  be  detected  by  the  lines  running  across  the 
sheet. 


Water  Finish 

In  water  finish  paper  a  film  of  water  is  passed  over 
the  paper  just  before  it  is  passed  between  the  rolls  of 
the  supercalender,  bringing  the  mineral  particles  to  the 
surface  and  making  a  very  level  finish  with  a  high 
degree  of  polish. 

"Water  leaf"  does  not  indicate  a  special  finish.  It 
is  simply  paper  which  is  left  unsized,  like  blotting 
paper. 


■. 


64     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Writing  Paper 

There  are  many  varieties  of  finish  for  writing 
paper.    The  most  important  are  the  following: 

Laid  paper  has  vertical  water  mark  lines  made  by  the 
dandy  roll  wires. 

Wove  paper  has  an  even  machine  finish. 

English  finish  paper  has  a  dull  velvety  surface. 

High  hulk  paper  is  thick  and  soft. 

Linen  finish  is  given  only  to  fine  papers.  The  paper, 
in  sheet  form,  is  taken  from  the  machine  while  it  is 
still  moist  and  then  loft  dried  (see  page  60).  Before  it 
is  quite  dry  it  is  given  the  finish  in  the  following 
manner :  A  sheet  of  linen  is  placed  on  a  sheet  of  heavy 
tin.  Then  a  sheet  of  paper  is  laid  on  the  linen;  this  is 
covered  by  another  sheet  of  linen,  and  so  on  until  a 
pile  is  made  which  is  about  4  inches  thick  including 
tin,  linen,  and  paper  sheets.  The  entire  pile  is  run 
through  plate  rolls  under  heavy  pressure  and  the  paper 
comes  out  with  the  imprint  of  the  linen  on  it. 

Bond  paper  is  strong  with  plenty  of  sizing. 

Linen  or  ledger  bond  paper  should  be  all-linen  and 
tub-sized. 

Writing   paper   is   usually   water   marked.      (See 

page  58.) 

Novelty  Finishes  of  Writing  Paper 

Many  pretty  and  pleasing  effects  are  made  by  com- 


^ 


FINISHING  THE  PAPER 


65 


binations  of  the  various  colors  and  finishes  on  a  hard 
paper.  Imitations  of  the  weaves  of  fabrics  as  batiste, 
organdy,  madras,  and  grosgrain,  are  called  "fabric 
finishes."  Popular  imitations  of  leathers  are  the 
chamois  and  angora  finishes.  Among  other  striking 
novelties  are  the  Grecian  antique  which  has  a  coarse, 
rough  surface ;  tgg  shell  which  has  a  fine  rough  surface 
resembling  an  tgg  shell;  alligator,  brown  with  the 
stripings  of  the  alligator  leather;  birch  bark,  a  thin, 
silky,  light  brown  paper  with  flecks  of  deeper  brown; 
and  the  Scotch  granite,  a  gray,  with  loose  fibers  washed 
through  it  resembling  granite. 

Book  Paper 

Book  papers  are  similar  to  writing  papers  of  the 
different  grades  but  they  are  often  given  special 
finishes,  such  as  supercalendering,  plating,  and  coating. 

The  principal  grades  of  book  paper  are  machine 
finish  (M.F.),  sized  and  supercalendered  (S.&S.C), 
coated,  and  cover.  In  the  first  three  grades  the  differ- 
ence is  chiefly  in  the  finish.  Cover  paper  is  a  strong 
heavy  grade,  usually  coated.  Sized  and  supercalendered 
paper  is  used  for  illustrated  magazines.  Coated  paper 
is  used  for  high-grade  illustrative  and  lithographic 
work.  For  reproducing  half-tone  cuts  the  paper  is 
coated  with  blanc  fixe,  satin  white,  or  a  similar  prepara- 
tion (see  page  62). 


;    I 


66     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

India  paper  is  made  of  all-rag  pulp,  beaten  by  a 
method  which  causes  the  fibers  to  felt  firmly  together, 
and  is  loaded  with  mineral  matter  to  give  it  opacity.  It 
has  only  one-third  of  the  weight  of  ordinary  book  paper 
of  the  same  opacity  and  legibility.  The  first  "India" 
paper  was  made  in  China,  but  at  that  time  everything 
eastern  was  called  "Indian,"  and  the  name  was  thus 
applied  to  the  new  product.  As  early  as  1841  a  thin, 
opaque  printing  paper  was  made  by  British  machines 
and  after  many  experiments  Thomas  Combe  of  Oxford 
brought  out  the  "Oxford  India  Paper  Bible"  in  1875. 
The  paper  in  this  volume  was  so  light  and  strong  that 
its  1,500  pages  could  be  suspended  by  one  leaf,  and  it 
was  also  so  compact  that  when  rubbed  it  became  soft 
and  looked  like  chamois  leather. 

India  paper  is  used  in  printing  books,  especially  the 
Bible  and  works  of  literature,  where  it  is  desirable 
to  avoid  bulk  and  weight  but  to  preserve  durability.  It 
is  also  used  for  fine  engravings. 

India  proof  paper  is  made  from  the  inner  fibers  of 
bamboo  stems.    It  is  extremely  soft  and  absorbent. 

A  paper  similar  to  India  paper  is  now  made  in  this 
country  from  hemp  fiber. 

Book  paper  is  furnished  either  in  rolls  or  sheets.  The 
roll  paper  is  largely  used  for  magazines  and  the  sheets 
for  books  and  other  purposes. 

School  pads,  envelopes,  and  cheap  writing  papers  are 


t 


4 


♦ 


FINISHING  THE  PAPER 


67 


made  of  book  paper,  and  it  is  also  used  for  wrappings 
by  druggists  and  soap  manufacturers,  and  to  cover 
paper  boxes. 

Newsprint 

Newsprint  paper  includes  that  used  for  some  2,500 
daily  and  14,000  weekly  and  semi  weekly  papers  and 
also  large  amounts  made  into  catalogues,  handbills, 
directories  and  railway  guides,  scratch  pads,  etc.  It  is 
made  of  either  ground  wood  alone  or  ground  wood 
mixed  with  20  per  cent  sulphite  pulp.  The  machines 
are  run  at  a  tremendous  speed,  often  as  high  as  800 
or  900  feet  a  minute,  and  make  a  sheet  150  inches  wide 
or  more. 


li 


i 


Chapter  VI 

MAKING  PAPER  INTO  STATIONERY 

Cutting 

The  dried  paper  ruled  off  in  feet,  inches,  and  frac- 
tions is  finally  placed  by  a  sliding  gauge  in  the  flat  on 
the  bed  plate  of  a  cutting  machine  fitted  vnth  revolving 
knives  that  can  be  set  to  any  size.  The  paper  is  held 
firmly  in  position  by  a  clamp.  Fine  and  highly  calen- 
dered papers  must  be  held  very  firmly  and  cut  by  sharp 
knives  with  great  accuracy  as  a  slight  movement  out  of 
place  will  ruin  the  sheet.  The  machine  sometimes  cuts 
through  200  sheets  at  one  time. 

The  cut  paper  is  then  sorted,  laid  in  systematic  piles, 
counted  and  divided  into  quires,  reams,  and  bundles, 
and  packed  for  storage  and  shipping.  As  paper  is 
generally  purchased  by  weight,  the  various  weights  are 
often  designated  by  the  size  of  paper,  as  for  example, 
"  size  in  inches  18  x  23,  weight  28  lbs.,  sheets  in  ream 
480."     The  quantities  are: 

24  sheets  make  a  quire. 
20  quires  make  a  ream. 
2  reams  make  a  bundle. 

68 


s 


^ 


MAKING  PAPER  INTO  STATIONERY  69 

The  English  ream  has  varied  from  472  to  516 
sheets.  The  French  ream  (1908)  is  500  sheets  unless 
otherwise  specified.  The  American  Paper  Manu- 
facturers' Association  has  fixed  500  sheets  as  the 
standard  ream  for  stationery  and  480  sheets  for  tissue 

paper. 

The  manufacturers  of  writing  paper  send  out  their 
product  in  large  flat  sheets  to  be  cut  into  the  required 
sizes  and  made  up  in  stationery  form  by  the  papeterie 
manufacturers  or  makers  of  fine  stationery.  A  list  of 
these  manufacturers  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  book. 
Only  a  few  firms  who  manufacture  paper  complete  the 

process. 

Paper  is  regularly  boxed  by  the  quire,  but  special 
boxes  may  contain  2  or  5  quires,  and  fancy  or  holi- 
day boxes  often  contain  two  sizes  of  paper  and  corre- 
spondence cards.  The  quantity  is  ordinarily  desig- 
nated. 

The  number  of  sheets  in  a  pound  of  paper  varies 
according  to  the  weight  of  the  paper  stock,  but  is 
usually  a  little  less  than  5  quires. 

Quires  of  writing  paper  are  put  up  in  four  sections 
of  6  sheets  each. 

Envelopes  are  sold  in  packages  of  25.  When  put 
into  quire  boxes  they  are  broken  into  two  smaller 
packages. 


70     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Envelopes 

Envelopes  are  cut  to  proper  shape  and  size  by  heavy 
machinery.  Large  piles  of  paper  stock  are  placed 
under  the  die  and  held  in  exact  position  by  vices  while 
the  die  drops,  cutting  out  several  dozen  envelopes  with 
one  blow.  The  pile  of  envelopes  while  in  the  flat  are 
removed  to  a  table  and  "  fanned  "  out,  that  is,  spread 
out  so  that  each  envelope  extends  a  little  beyond  the 
one  just  above  it.  It  requires  considerable  skill  to  do 
this  quickly  and  evenly.  Pure  gum  arabic  is  then 
deftly  applied  by  a  brush  to  the  part  left  bare  and  the 
envelopes  set  aside  to  dry. 

Regular  sized  envelopes  are  folded  by  machinery, 
but  the  odd  and  novelty  sizes  are  hand- folded,  this 
again  requiring  accurate,  neat  workmanship. 

Cards 

Cards  are  cut  from  sheets  of  cardboard  by  sharp, 
accurate  machinery.  By  adjusting  the  knives  of  the 
machine,  cards  of  any  size  may  be  cut.  The  high-grade 
cardboard  used  for  calling  cards  is  known  as  bristol- 
board  because  it  was  first  made  at  Bristol,  England. 
It  is  made  by  pressing  several  layers  of  moist  paper 
together  under  heavy  weights. 

If  the  cards  are  to  be  black-bordered,  they  are 
"  fanned  "  out  and  the  blacking  applied  with  a  brush 
in  the  same  way  as  the  gum  arabic  to  the  envelopes.    It 


MAKING  PAPER  INTO  STATIONERY  71 

requires  great  dexterity  to  arrange  the  cards  so  that  the 
borders  will  be  even  and  to  apply  the  coating  properly. 
Mourning  stationery  is  bordered  in  the  same  way. 

Sizes 

Correspondence  papers  of  the  various  manufacturers 
vary  in  size.  The  standard  sizes  for  the  papers  of  one 
prominent  manufacturer  are : 

Lakewood 5  %  ^  6i%6 

Arverne 5  %  x  6  %6 

Octavo .4^6  X  6  % 

Commercial    4  %  x  7  % 

Athena — 

(i)     3  %x4  % 

(2)    4  %x5iyi6 

(3)    5  Hx6  yi6 

The  standard  sizes  for  the  papers  of  another  prom- 
inent manufacturer  are: 

Imperial    6x8 

Commercial     5^8 

Octavo    4^/^  X  7 

Gladstone ^V^yi^V^ 

Douglas   4%  X  6H 

Mildred    4V2  x  6 

Astoria   4^/^  x  5% 

Victor    4x5y2 


72     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Correspondence  cards  for  ladies  usually  come  in  two 
sizes,  5y2  X  3%,  and  4%  x  3^/4.  The  larger  size  is  the 
proper  size  for  men. 

It  is  advisable  to  keep  a  stock  of  correspondence 
cards  to  match  the  envelopes  in  the  finer  grades  of 
stationery. 

Commercial   Stationery  —  Bond  Paper 

The  best  commercial  stationery  is  made  of  linen 
bond,  so  called  because  bond  papers  were  first  made  for 
engraving  and  printing  bonds,  stocks,  and  other  finan- 
cial certificates  which  required  an  especially  strong,  firm 
paper.  Much  of  what  is  called  bond  paper  is  made 
of  cotton  fiber. 

Sizes  of  Commercial  Stationery 

The  sizes  of  papers  in  the  commercial  stock  are : 
Letter  heads  and  typewriting  papers,   full  size, 

8H  X  1 1 ;  half  size,  8y2  x  5%. 
Legal  cap,  8x13  and  8%  x  13. 
Foolscap,  Sy2  X  14. 

The  sizes  of  commercial  envelopes  are : 
No.  6%         3^2  X   6  No.  10 

6%         3%  X   51/2  II 

7  3%  X   6%  14 

9  3%  X   8% 


4%  X   9H 
4%  X  10% 

5       XII>^ 


MAKING  PAPER  INTO  STATIONERY  73 

Ledgers 

The  paper  used  in  ledgers  must  be  of  good  quality, 
smooth,  thick,  and  durable.  It  is  ruled  according  to 
the  required  purpose,  by  manufacturers  who  make  a 
specialty  of  this  line.  The  backs  are  of  various  mate- 
rials. Cloth,  especially  a  heavy  canvas,  is  the  material 
generally  used,  sometimes  with  leather  backs  and 
corners.  Leather  and  leatherette  backs  are  attractive 
and  durable  if  of  good  quality. 

Loose-Leaf  Devices 

Loose-leaf  devices  are  of  several  kinds,  and  should 
be  chosen  with  reference  to  their  use. 

The  post  is  capable  of  the  greatest  extension. 

The  ring,  limited  by  the  size  of  the  ring,  is  suitable 
for  most  general  purposes,  such  as  school  notes. 

The  ledger  usually  has  a  closed  back  and  can  be  filled 
only  to  a  certain  extent. 

The  prong  is  used  for  railroad  purposes,  filing  bills, 

etc. 

The  sheet-holder  is   a  loose-leaf   device  used  by 

expressmen. 

Filing  Envelopes 

Filing  envelopes  are  of  various  sizes  and  shapes  and 
are  made  chiefly  from  **  fiber  stock,"  a  heavy  paper, 
usually  colored,  and  leatheroid,  which  is  an  imitation 
of  leather  in  a  heavy,  coarse,  smooth  paper. 


/. 


.    I; 


74     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Special  Kinds  of  Envelopes 

Bank  book  envelopes  are  closed  with  a  side  seam, 
have  no  flap,  and  are  "thumb-cut"  on  the  end.  They 
are  made  of  manila,  jute,  or  red  rope.  They  come 
in  ten  sizes,  from  3^  x  4}i  to  4j4  x  yYz. 

Coin  envelopes,  specially  gummed,  are  open  at  the 
end.  They  come  in  white  and  manila  in  seven  sizes, 
from  2}i  X  3>4  to  3>4  x  6. 

Display  envelopes  have  the  seams  on  the  front  or 
address  side  so  that  the  back  can  be  used  for  advertis- 
ing purposes. 

Drug  and  pay  envelopes  are  white,  colored,  or  manila. 
They  come  in  five  sizes,  from  1%  x  2>4  to  25^  x  4^^. 

Duplex  or  double  envelopes  are  usually  white  lined 
with  blue,  the  sizes  ranging  from  3  1/16  x  sJ/^  to 
Sys  X  eyi.  They  are  also  made  of  cloth  lined  with 
blue  and  white  and  these  range  in  size  from  zVs  ^ 

5%to5x  iiy2. 

Expansion  wallets  come  in  same  sizes  as  wallet  en- 
velopes (see  page  75). 

Fastener  envelopes  are  of  two  kinds :  ( i )  with  a 
metal  prong  which  slips  through  an  opening  in  the  flap 
and  is  bent  out  or  back  to  secure  the  fastening;  (2) 
with  a  paper  or  leather  disk  on  the  body  of  the  envelope 
and  a  cord  secured  to  the  flap  which  is  twisted  around 
the  disk.  These  envelopes  are  made  of  manila  and  come 
in  fourteen  sizes,  from  ^Ys  x  sVs  to  9J^  x  12}^. 


MAKING  PAPER  INTO  STATIONERY 


75 


Postage-saving  envelopes  have  one  end  ungummed, 
so  that  they  seem  closed  with  the  flap  sealed  down,  but 
in  reality  the  end  can  be  pulled  out. 

Security  mailing  envelopes  have  a  double  fold  at  the 
top  and  bottom,  a  heavily  gummed  flap,  and  are  open 
at  the  side.  They  are  made  of  jute  and  kraft.  There 
are  three  sizes,  4^4  x  10,  5  x  11,  and  5  x  12. 

Wallet  envelopes,  for  holding  securities  and  im- 
portant papers,  have  ungummed  flaps  and  red  rope. 
They  come  in  11  sizes,  from  4  x  g^  to  6  x  loj^.  In 
manila  they  have  an  open  side  and  a  large  flap,  in  size 
10  X  12. 

Window  envelopes  are  of  two  varieties :  ( i )  with  the 
opening  covered  with  transparent  paper  through  which 
the  name  and  address  on  the  enclosed  letter  can  be 
read;  (2)  with  a  similar  opening,  but  uncovered.. 


|! 


n 


,1 
1 


r  ' 


Chapter  VII 

CHARACTERISTICS  OR  PROPERTIES  OF 

GOOD  PAPER 

Characteristics 

Writing  papers  of  the  best  quality  are  all  rag,  tub- 
sized,  air-dried,  and  plate-glazed.  Whether  they  be 
"  wove  "  or  "  laid,"  this  does  not  change  the  quality. 
Where  the  fibers  are  drawn  out  rather  than  cut,  the 
paper  is  harder  and  more  resistant  to  wear.  When 
there  is  also  a  felting  or  matting  tendency  as  in  linen 
and  rag  paper,  the  texture  is  improved. 

Texture 

When  a  sheet  of  paper  is  held  up  to  the  light,  it 
should  be  of  uniform  texture.  "  Wildness "  or  an 
irregular  or  patchy  appearance  is  objectionable.  It  is 
desirable  that  all  papers,  except  those  used  for  tracing 
purposes,  should  be  opaque  rather  than  transparent. 
This  even  texture  and  solid  appearance  is  given  by 
proper  sizing,  loading,  and  finishing.  Paper  made  of 
sulphite  wood  pulp,  which  has  a  tendency  to  produce 
transparency,  is  for  this  reason  mixed  or  loaded  with 

76 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GOOD  PAPER  77 

mechanical  wood  pulp  when  it  is  to  be  used  for  writing 
papers.  Too  dense  texture  shows  too  much  filling. 
Well-sized  paper  does  not  allow  the  ink  to  penetrate 
to  the  other  side  but  only  deeply  enough  to  dry  in  a 
reasonable  time.  Poorly  sized  paper  may  be  detected 
by  moistening  a  part  and  observing  its  flabby,  saturated, 
and  transparent  appearance  at  that  spot,  or  by  writing 
thickly  upon  it  and  observing  the  time  it  takes  for  the 
ink  to  dry. 

Finish 

Good  writing  paper  is  usually  well  glazed.  Type- 
writing papers  are  best  unglazed.  Printing  paper 
should  not  be  too  heavily  crushed.  Imperfect  calen- 
dering may  be  detected  by  looking  across  the  sheet, 
held  on  a  level  with  the  eye.  If  fibers  stick  up  it  is  not 
well  glazed. 

Durability 

The  durability  of  paper  depends  upon  the  fiber  used, 
and  upon  the  chemicals  used  in  the  process  of  prepara- 
tion. Cotton  and  linen  rags  which  are  respectively  91 
per  cent  and  90  per  cent  pure  cellulose,  and  which  con- 
sequently need  little  chemical  treatment  to  convert  them 
into  pulp,  make  a  paper  that  lasts  longest.  Some 
very  durable  drawing  papers  are  manufactured  from 
rags  without  the  aid  of  chemicals.    The  rags  are 


It 


'1     i  J 


j     ( 


i-,. 


78      PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

simply  boiled  in  plain  water,  beaten  into  pulp,  and 
spread  into  sheets.  The  larger  the  amount  of  sizing 
and  other  chemicals  used  in  the  loading  and  coloring 
process,  the  more  quickly  paper  deteriorates  as  the 
result  of  their  chemical  action.  For  this  reason 
mechanical  wood  pulp  is  likely  to  make  a  perishable 

paper. 

The  polished  surface  given  by  plating,  supercalender- 
ing,  or  water-finishing  may  account  for  deterioration. 
In  such  cases  the  paper  is  susceptible  to  dampness  and 
is  apt  to  crack.     Glazing  improves  the  appearance  but 

not  the  quality. 

Resin-sized  papers  may  be  affected  by  sunlight ;  gela- 
tin-sized paper  is  useless  in  damp,  hot  countries. 
Starch-  or  alum-sized  paper  disintegrates. 

The  order  of  durability  of  papers  made  from  the 
various  fibers  is  as  follows: 

1.  Rag 

2.  Chemical  wood 

3.  Esparto,  straw 

4.  Mechanical  wood 

Strength 

Quality  is  measured  by  the  paper's  resistance  to 
rough  usage,  and  depends  principally  upon  the  length 
and  quality  of  the  fibers  of  which  it  is  made.  Rag 
papers  whose  fibers  have  felting  or  interlacing  proper- 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GOOD  PAPER 


79 


ties  are  both  strong  and  durable,  while  sulphite  pulp, 
under-bleached  and  well-sized,  is  also  strong  and  tough, 
though  not  so  durable  as  linen  and  cotton  because  of  its 
chemical  treatment  which  makes  it  subject  to  the  action 
of  air  and  light.  The  Japanese  papers  whose  fibers  are 
separated  into  lengths  rather  than  torn  into  small  pieces 
are  notably  strong.  For  the  same  reason  writing  and 
parchment  papers  are  stronger  than  blotting  or  filtering 
papers. 

Machine-made  papers  tear  irregularly  in  all  direc- 
tions. Hand-made  or  mold-made  tear  in  almost  a 
straight  line  either  crosswise  or  lengthwise. 

Color 

Good  writing  paper  should  have  a  pure,  clear,  uni- 
form color  and  should  be  reasonably  "  fast "  to  light, 
moisture,  and  wear.  Blotches  of  color  or  a  difference 
of  color  on  the  two  sides  is  most  undesirable.  The 
reason  that  the  under  surface  is  darker  than  the  top 
is  due  to  the  shaking  of  the  pulp  in  the  Fourdrinier 
which  causes  the  particles  of  color  to  settle  at  the 
bottom. 

Fading  may  be  due  to  exposure  to  light ;  or,  in  the 
packing  the  paper  may  have  come  in  contact  with 
boards  or  materials  whose  chemicals  have  changed  the 
color. 

Unevenness  in  color  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  dif- 


1      ! 
4 


4 
I 


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80     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

ferent  fibers  absorb  the  color  in  different  ways,  or  it 
may  be  due  to  a  lack  of  care  in  straining  the  dyes.  The 
calendering  brings  out  this  effect. 

Tests  for  Bond  Papers 

The  Parsons  tests  for  quality  of  bond  papers  are 
simple,  and  easily  applied.     They  are  as  follows : 

1.  Test  for  Crackle.  Shake  the  paper  in  the  hand 
and  listen  to  the  crackle.  If  it  is  a  high-grade  bond  it 
will  have  a  rattle  and  a  snap.  It  will  have  a  **  feel " 
like  that  of  crisp,  new  bills  and  a  stiffness  and  firm 
structure  that  indicates  strength. 

2.  Test  for  Looks.  Hold  the  paper  up  to  the  light 
and  note  the  appearance.  Good  bond  papers  are 
slightly  mottled,  but  not  spotty  nor  speckled,  nor 
uneven;  that  is,  they  are  uniform  in  quality.  Good 
bond  paper  also  does  not  fade. 

3.  Test  for  Finish.  Look  along  the  surface  of  a 
sheet.  Good  bond  paper  is  smooth,  firmly  textured, 
slightly  uneven,  yet  with  no  "hills  and  valleys"  to 
interfere  with  the  writing  qualities.  Then  fold  back 
and  see  how  the  two  sides  compare  on  the  same  test. 
Good  bond  papers  are  uniform  on  both  sides. 

4.  Test  for  Strength.  Tear  the  paper  twice,  once 
from  the  end  and  once  from  the  side.  It  is  important 
to  make  the  two  tears  because  the  fibers  tend  to  settle 
lengthwise  along  the  wire  in  the  Fourdrinier  machine 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GOOD  PAPER  81 

and  this  makes  a  slight  difference  in  the  relative 

strength. 

5.  Test  for  Writing.  Write  on  the  paper  with  a  pen 
and  see  how  it  slips  along  the  surface.  It  should  not 
catch  or  miss  or  tear  off  little  fibers.  A  good  bond 
paper  is  evenly  and  uniformly  finished  on  both  sides 
and  writes  as  well  on  both.  Poorly  sized  bonds  let  the 
ink  spread  and  show  through  the  paper. 

6.  Test  for  Wearing.  Crumple  up  and  rub  the  sheet 
between  the  hands  as  a  washwoman  rubs  a  garment  in 
the  tub.  Good  bond  papers  lose  the  fine  surface  finish 
and  work  into  the  shape  of  a  piece  of  cloth  but  do  not 
tear  or  show  pin  holes  when  held  to  the  light,  as  a 
cheaply  made  bond  will. 

Tests  for  Ledger  Papers 

The  Parsons  tests  for  ledger  papers  are  as  follows : 

1.  Test  for  Writing.  Same  as  for  bond.  This  is 
the  most  important  requisite  for  ledger  paper. 

2.  Test  for  Erasing.  Good  ledger  paper  must  per- 
mit of  quick  erasures  and  rewriting  without  discoloring 
or  spreading  of  the  ink.  On  a  good  ledger  paper  one 
can  erase  on  the  same  spot  on  each  side  of  the  page  and 
write  over  the  surface  without  the  erasures  being  evi- 
dent to  the  casual  eye. 

3.  Test  for  Wearing.     Same  as  for  bond  paper. 

4.  Test  for  Strength.     Same  as  for  bond  paper. 


■  i 


1 


82     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

5.  Test  for  Finish.  Look  along  the  surface  of  the 
paper.  Good  ledger  paper  presents  a  smooth,  firm, 
even  finish,  allowing  the  pen  to  glide  smoothly  over  it. 
Both  sides  should  be  the  same. 

6.  Test  for  Looks.  Hold  it  up  to  the  light.  Good 
ledger  paper  should  be  even  toned,  pure  in  color,  with- 
out spots  or  waxy  patches  or  little  specks.  It  must 
not  fade  or  become  yellow  with  age. 


I^^ 


Chapter  VIII 

SPECIALLY  PREPARED  PAPERS  AND  PAPER 

PRODUCTS 

Bank  Note  Paper 

Bank  note  paper  is  made  of  all-rag  pulp,  and  until 
the  war  was  made  of  linen  rags  only.  It  is  distinguished 
by  the  silk  threads  which  are  introduced  into  the  pulp 
while  it  is  in  the  beating  machine. 

Blotting  Paper 

Blotting  paper  is  of  several  grades.  The  best  is  made 
from  old  soft,  well-matured  cotton  rags.  A  medium 
grade  is  made  from  soda  pulp  and  cotton  mixed,  or 
from  soda  pulp  alone,  while  a  cheap  grade  may  be  made 
of  mechanical  wood  pulp.  The  requirements  of  blot- 
ting paper  are  absorbency,  freedom  from  fluff,  which 
blurs  the  ink,  and  a  good  printing  surface.  Very  pure 
soft  water  must  be  used  in  making  the  pulp,  which  is 
beaten  quickly.  It  is  not  sized  but  contains  starch  as  a 
filling. 

Blue  Print  Paper 

Blue  print  paper  is  coated  with  a  solution  of  red 

83 


r 

I 


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m 


84     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

prussiate  of  potash  and  peroxide  of  iron,  which  makes 
it  sensitive  to  light.  When  exposed  to  the  sunlight  it 
takes  the  impression  of  drawings  or  photographs  which 
are  laid  upon  it.  There  are  two  forms — one  in  which 
the  blue  lines  of  the  photograph  or  drawing  appear 
on  a  white  ground,  the  other  in  which  the  white  lines 
appear  on  a  blue  ground.  Blue  print  paper  was  dis- 
covered by  Sir  John  Hirschel  in  1842. 

Boards  or  Board  Paper 

Boards  or  board  paper  are  made  from  wood  pulp,  old 
paper  stock,  and  even  leather  scraps.  The  raw  materials 
are  cut  up  in  a  chopper  and  boiled  with  lime  or  soda, 
and  go  through  the  earlier  processes  as  for  ordinary 
paper,  but  not  through  the  Fourdrinier.  A  cylinder 
machine  is  used  which  resembles  the  wet  machine  in  the 
pulp  mill.  The  stock  is  pumped  into  this  machine  and 
taken  up  on  a  wire  cylinder.  By  this  it  is  deposited  on 
a  traveling  felt  and  taken  to  a  wooden  roll.  The  num- 
ber of  laps  allowed  to  wind  around  the  roll  decide  the 
thickness  of  the  board.  Twenty-five  revolutions  of  the 
roll  gather  enough  pulp  to  make  >4  inch  board.  The 
lap  is  cut  ofif  the  roll  while  it  is  still  in  motion  and  hung 
up  to  dry.  It  is  then  smoothed  between  calenders  and 
is  ready  for  shipment. 

Bristol  board,  a  fine  variety  of  board  used  for  draw- 
ing, is  made  of  bleached  pulp  and  has  a  smooth  surface. 


SPECIALLY  PREPARED  PAPERS 


85 


Carbon  Paper 

Carbon  paper  is  tissue  paper  faced  with  carbon  or 
lampblack  mixed  with  oil  or  wax.  Black  carbon  paper 
is  more  popular  than  blue  or  purple. 

Crepe  Paper 

Crepe  paper  is  simply  tissue  paper  bent  in  slight  cor- 
rugations resembling  crepe,  and  may  be  of  any  color. 
It  has  become  an  important  speciality  of  the  Stationery 
Department  on  account  of  its  adaptability  for  many 
decorative  purposes.    It  is  most  popularly  used  for : 

Lamp  and  candle  shades 
Table  decorations 
Flower  making 
Shelf  paper 
Costumes  for  fancy  balls 

The  best  tissue  paper  used  in  making  crepe  paper  is 
made  from  pure  flax  and  is  grass-bleached,  no  chem- 
ical being  used.  The  fibers  are  longer  in  good  tissue, 
thereby  giving  strength  to  the  paper.  Age  does  not 
aflfect  the  stock.  Cheaper  qualities  of  tissue  are  made 
of  wood  pulp  and  rags. 

The  first  crepe  or  crinkled  paper  was  made  by  draw- 
ing a  good  grade  of  tissue  paper  through  the  hands 
until  it  became  finely  ribbed.  The  first  real  crepe 
paper  was  made  of  the  pulp.    Its  discovery  was  appar- 


86     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

ently  an  accident  due  to  the  fact  that  one  of  the 
machines  was  not  working  properly  and  the  paper  was 
spoiled.  The  attendant  threw  away  the  crinkly  sheets, 
but  a  member  of  the  firm  happened  to  pass  through 
the  factory  and  saw  the  discarded  paper.  For  a  long 
time  all  crepe  paper  was  made  directly  from  the  pulp, 
but  now  it  is  made  from  tissue  paper. 

The  modern  method  of  manufacture  of  crepe  uses 
a  wood  pulp  tissue  paper.  The  tissue  passes  through  a 
liquid  that  practically  reduces  it  to  a  pulp,  but  it  still 
retains  its  sheet  form.  It  passes  over  a  cylinder,  run- 
ning at  a  certain  speed  which  is  determined  by  the  type 
of  crepe  paper  to  be  made.  A  long  knife  lifts  the 
paper  from  the  cylinder.  The  paper  is  pulled  away  at 
a  rate  of  speed  less  than  the  speed  of  the  cylinder. 
This  crepes  the  paper.  Next  it  is  dried.  If  the  paper 
is  to  be  colored  a  single  color,  the  dye  is  put  into  the 
liquid  that  the  tissue  first  passes  through.  If  printed, 
each  color  is  put  on  by  separate  rollers,  but  all  on  the 
same  machine. 

Deckled-Edged  Paper 

This  is  paper  which  has  been  given  a  rough,  uneven 
edge  similar  to  that  made  by  the  old  deckle  frame. 

Filter  Paper 

Filter  paper  is  somewhat  similar  to  blotting  paper  but 


SPECIALLY  PREPARED  PAPERS 


87 


must  be  made  with  much  greater  care.  That  which  is 
made  for  scientific  purposes  has  been  given  special 
study  by  experts  in  England,  France,  Germany,  and 
Sweden,  in  order  to  produce  the  wide  variety  of  papers 
needed  for  different  purposes.  For  fast  filtering  the 
paper  is  very  loose  in  structure,  but  some  of  the  finer 
particles  of  the  precipitate  pass  through  with  the  liquid. 
Sometimes  it  is  important  that  no  material  should  be 
lost  even  if  the  filtration  is  very  slow.  The  paper  is  made 
of  cotton  rags  treated  with  hydrochloric  and  hydro- 
fluoric acids,  then  with  alkalies,  and  washed  many 
times  so  that  no  chemical  remains.  It  is  almost  pure 
cellulose. 

Hardware  Paper 

Hardware  paper,  used  for  wrapping  steel,  is  sized 
with  glue  and  an  excess  of  alum  to  keep  the  steel  bright. 
It  must  be  free  from  chemicals  which  would  tarnish  the 
metal. 

Japanese  Papers 

Japanese  papers  are  of  various  qualities  all  having 
peculiar  strength  and  appearance,  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  fibers  are  beaten  out  with  mallets  and  retain  their 
full  length.  This  description  applies  only  to  the  paper 
made  by  the  Japanese. 


i  V 


^  ii 


88     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Kraft  Paper 

Kraft  paper  is  a  very  strong  unbleached  wrapping 
paper  made  from  sulphate  pulp.  The  fibers  are  long 
and  well  felted  by  slow  beating.  Many  imitations  of 
kraft  paper  are  made  from  mechanical  pulp  but  they 
only  resemble  it  in  color.  Wrappings  are  also  made 
from  combinations  of  kraft  with  sulphite,  ground  wood 
and  waste  paper. 

Manila  Paper 

Manila  paper  was  originally  made  of  pulp  from 
manila  rope,  but  now  it  is  merely  ground  wood  paper 
with  a  little  sulphite  to  give  it  strength  and  colored  to 
look  like  manila. 

Onion  Skin  Paper 

This  is  a  translucent,  high-grade  writing  paper  with 
a  finish  described  by  its  name. 

Packing  Papers 

These  papers  are  lined  with  gauze  or  cloth. 

Papier  Mache 

Papier  mache  is  manufactured  from  old  waste  and 
scrap  paper  by  various  methods.  It  contains  paper 
pulp,  resin,  sugar  of  lead,  and  drying  oil,  forming  a 


SPECIALLY  PREPARED  PAPERS 


89 


paste  which  may  be  molded  or  pressed  into  shape.  It 
is  used  for  various  purposes. 

For  the  papier  mache  boxes  made  to  imitate  the  thin 
Japan  wooden  boxes,  a  spongy  paper  is  soaked  in  a 
paste  of  flour  and  glue.  Four  sheets  of  paper  are  then 
laid  one  over  another  in  a  metal  mold  which  has  been 
rubbed  over  with  tallow.  The  "crust"  is  put  in  a  cool 
oven  to  dry.  It  is  then  covered  with  another  layer  and 
again  dried,  the  operation  being  repeated  until  the  sheet 
is  of  the  desired  thickness.  It  is  then  dipped  in  a  hard- 
ening mixture  and  dried  in  a  hot  oven,  rubbed,  and 
filed  to  prepare  it  for  the  final  coating  of  black  or 

colored  enamel. 

A  sort  of  paper  dough,  used  for  dolls'  heads,  is  made 
of  paper  pulp,  powdered  clay,  and  glue.  This  is  pressed 
into  molds  and  when  dry  is  painted  with  an  air  brush 
and  given  the  necessary  finishing. 

Paper  Toweling 

Paper  toweling  is  made  of  unsized  ground  wood  pulp 
and  may  be  either  bleached  or  unbleached. 

Parchment  Paper 

Parchment  paper  is  unsized  rag  or  high-grade  sul- 
phite pulp  which  is  put  through  a  bath  of  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  washed  with  water  and  diluted  alkali  to 
neutralize  the  acid,  and  then  with  pure  water  to  get 


\  I 


4 


1  'i 


l; 


t . 


90     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

rid  o!  the  alkali.  This  treatment  changes  the  surface 
fibers  into  a  tough  gelatinous  covering  which  is  similar 
to  animal  parchment  and  is  moisture  proof.  Zinc 
chloride  is  sometimes  substituted  for  the  sulphuric 
acid. 

Photographic  Paper 

Photographic  printing  paper  is  coated  by  machinery 
with  emulsions  of  silver  haloids  in  gelatine.  For  the 
platinotype  process  silver  bromide  and  salts  of  platinum 
are  used.  Paper  negatives  are  treated  with  gelatine 
bromide  made  translucent  with  an  emulsion  of  caster 
oil.  For  making  positive  prints  from  negatives,  photo- 
graphic paper  is  prepared  with  albumen  salt  or  other 
coating.  For  printing  in  colors,  tissues  are  coated  with 
pigmented  gelatine  or  pigmented  gum. 

Protective  or  Safety  Papers 

These  papers  are  treated  with  chemicals  which  make 
the  detection  of  forgery  or  dishonesty  easier. 

Rice  Paper 

Rice  paper  is  made  from  the  pith  of  the  "rice  paper 
tree."  This  tree  grows  20  feet  high  in  China  and 
Japan  and  has  leaves  a  foot  across.  The  pith  is  cut  into 
pieces  3  inches  long  and  i>^  inches  in  diameter  and 
these  are  then  pared  into  thin  rolls  with  a  sharp  knife, 


SPECIALLY  PREPARED  PAPERS 


9i 


flattened,  and  dried  under  pressure,  making  sheets  a 
few  inches  long.  The  Chinese  draw  and  paint  on 
them. 

Roofing  and  Building  Paper 

Roofing  and  building  papers  are  made  from  coarse, 
heavy  materials,  such  as  old  gunny  sacks  or  jute  waste. 
They  are  usually  impregnated  with  chemicals,  asphalt, 
etc.,  or  combined  with  asbestos  to  make  them  water- 
proof. 

Silverware  Paper 

This  paper  used  for  wrapping  articles  made  of  silver 
is  treated  with  caustic  soda  and  zinc  oxide. 

Tin  Foil 

Tin  foil  is  a  solution  of  gum  and  finely  powdered  tin. 

Tissue  Papers 

Tissue  papers  are  made  on  special  machines,  as  the 
web  is  too  thin  to  support  its  own  weight  and  must  be 
carried  at  all  times  on  a  felt.  The  machines  run  more 
slowly  and  the  web  is  only  a  third  as  wide  as  for  news- 
print. When  ground  wood  is  used  it  must  be  very 
carefully  selected  and  must  not  contain  sticky  or  resin- 
ous matter.  When  sulphite  is  used  it  must  be  cooked 
very  carefully  and  not  too  quickly. 


i 


92     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Tracing  Paper 

Tracing  paper  is  tissue  paper  sized  with  oil  and 
varnished,  or  with  turpentine  and  gum,  so  that  it  is 
transparent  and  yet  of  such  a  texture  as  to  take  marks. 

Transfer  Paper 

Transfer  paper  for  transferring  designs  to  materials 
is  coated  with  starch,  flour,  or  gum  before  it  is 
printed.  When  heated  the  pattern  comes  off  with  the 
coating. 

Vellum 

Vellum  is  a  thick  paper  resembling  prepared  calfskin. 
It  is  made  from  good  quality  rags  which  have  been  long 
beaten. 

Vulcanized  Paper 

Vulcanized  paper  is  saturated  and  coated  with  tin, 
calcium,  magnesium,  or  aluminum  chloride  to  give  it 
toughness  and  strength. 

Vulcanized  Fiber 

Vulcanized  fiber,  used  for  waste  baskets,  trunks, 
tubs,  etc.,  is  made  of  sheets  of  paper  treated  with  zinc 
chloride  and  pressed  together  and  washed  to  remove  the 
chemicals. 


SPECIALLY  PREPARED  PAPERS 


93 


Waxed  Paper 

Waxed  paper  is  prepared  by  rubbing  melted  beeswax 
or  paraffin  into  the  paper  with  a  hot  iron.  This  makes 
it  impervious  to  moisture. 

Imitations  of  Other  Materials 

Paper  is  now  substituted  for  leather  in  many  in- 
stances. Furniture  coverings,  hangings,  and  many 
other  'leathers"  are  made  of  paper  prepared  with  glue 
or  by  other  secret  processes  which  toughen  the  fiber  and 
give  it  a  grained  appearance.  Sometimes  these  imitation 
leathers  are  very  difficult  to  detect. 

Leatherboard  is  paper  pulp  containing  ground-up 
leather  hardened  under  great  pressure. 

Linoleum  is  also  sometimes  made  of  paper  instead  of 
cork  and  spun  and  woven  paper  is  used  in  many  ways. 
Paper  carpets  are  still  an  experiment  but  paper  roofing 
is  extensively  used  not  only  in  the  crude  form  of  tar 
paper,  but  in  imitation  tiles. 

Beaver  board  is  a  heavy  building  board  used  in 
country  houses  and  for  temporary  partitions  in  many 
other  buildings  instead  of  plastered  inner  walls.  It  is 
made  from  the  long  fibers  of  spruce. 


Chapter  IX 
WALL  PAPER 


»» 


One  of  the  important  uses  of  paper  is  for  "hangings 
or  wall  paper. 


Manufacture 

Wall  paper  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as  newsprint 
until  it  arrives  at  the  finishing  processes.  The  furnish 
is  unbleached  ground  wood  with  about  15  per  cent  of 
sulphite,  also  unbleached.  As  it  is  a  bulky  paper  and 
of  a  relatively  cheap  grade,  the  treatment  in  the  beater 
is  short  and  sharp  to  keep  the  cost  of  production  down. 
The  machine  is  also  run  at  a  high  speed. 

About  10  per  cent  of  clay  is  added  to  give  it  bulk 
and  softness  and  it  is  heavily  sized,  for  unless  it  is 
well  sized  it  will  not  take  the  paste  properly. 

For  cartridge  paper  and  those  of  similar  character  the 
color  is  introduced  in  the  beater,  but  most  wall  papers 
are  printed  either  with  blocks  or  in  color  machines. 

Printing  Wall  Papers 

Designs  for  wall  papers  are  painted  on  sheets  of 
paper  with  at  least  one  ''repeat"  to  show  the  relation  of 

94 


WALL  PAPER 


95 


parts  to  each  other.^  Tracings  are  then  made  in  the 
block-cutter's  department,  and  on  each  tracing  the  parts 
to  be  printed  in  a  single  color  are  filled  in  with  red. 

Machine  printing  is  done  with  sets  of  rollers.  Strips 
of  brass  are  bent  to  conform  to  the  heavier  outlines  of 
the  pattern  and  the  lighter  parts  are  made  of  sheet  brass. 
Brass  pins  are  also  used  for  certain  effects.  These  are 
all  attached  to  the  wooden  rollers,  of  which  there  are  as 
many  as  there  are  variations  of  color  in  the  design. 
There  may  be  twelve  rollers  in  a  set. 

Grounding 

The  paper  is  first  passed  through  a  machine  for 
"grounding,"  or  giving  the  background  color.  This  is 
spread  on  by  means  of  brushes.  The  paper  is  then 
taken  up  on  round  sticks  which  carry  it  to  the  ceiling 
and  down  the  length  of  the  drying  room  where  the 
warm  air  dries  it  before  it  reaches  the  printing 
room. 

Printing  the  Pesign 

The  printing  machine  has  a  revolving  drum  over 
which  the  paper  passes,  and  two  sets  of  rollers.  One 
set  dips  into  the  color  pans  and  the  other  set,  the  print- 
ing rollers,  are  connected  with  the  first  by  cloth  belts 
called  "sieve  cloths."    Each  sieve  cloth  presses  against 

»  See  pages  120  and  121  in  "Silk  Manual"  for  classes  of  patterns. 


96     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

a  color  roller  and  then  passes  to  the  printing  roller, 
which  receives  the  color  on  its  raised  portions  and 
deposits  it  upon  the  paper. 

Drying  and  Rolling 

When  the  paper  has  passed  under  all  the  printing 
rollers,  receiving  one  color  from  each,  it  is  again 
carried  up  to  the  ceiling  of  the  drying  room  and  allowed 
to  hang  in  long  loops  reaching  almost  to  the  floor  so 
that  a  large  part  of  the  paper's  surface  is  exposed  to 
the  warm  air  and  it  is  quite  dry  when  it  reaches  the 
reeling  or  rolling  machine.  This  machine  rolls  the 
paper  into  "double  roll'*  lengths  which  are  cut  off  and 
tied  in  bundles  of  fifty. 

Block  Printing 

Block  printing  is  used  only  for  the  more  expensive 
papers.  The  pattern  is  worked  out  in  relief  (raised) 
on  wooden  blocks  and  the  colors  are  prepared  on  pads. 
The  blocks  take  the  colors  up  from  the  pads  and  trans- 
fer them  to  the  paper.  It  is  a  slow  process  for  each 
color  is  on  a  separate  pad  and  each  one  must  be  printed 
with  a  separate  block  by  placing  it  on  the  paper  and 
giving  it  a  blow  with  a  hammer. 

Engraved  papers  are  printed  on  hand  engraved 
rollers  of  polished  copper. 


i 


WALL  PAPER 


97 


Embossing 

Papers  are  embossed  after  they  are  pnnted.  Ihis 
is  done  by  passing  them  between  rollers.  The  "pper 
one  is  of  steel  with  a  raised  design,  such  as  pebbhng 
(a  surface  covered  with  fine  grains  like  some  leather 
finishes)  or  lines  similar  to  the  marks  of  woven  fabrics. 
The  lower  roller  is  covered  with  a  paper  cushion. 
Double-process  papers  are  passed  through  the  pnntmg 
machine  twice  but  "overprints,"  or  papers  which  have 
apparently  two  patterns,  one  over  the  other,  are  made 
at  the  time  of  the  first  printing  by  means  of  extra 

rollers.  ...  •  i. 

For  "varnish  golds"  the  pattern  is  pnnted  in  varnish, 
and  bronze  or  other  metal  is  dusted  on  the  sticky 

^""Liquid  goW"  is  applied  like  a  color  by  a  special  roller 
in  the  printing  machine. 

The  color  for  printing  wall  papers  is  made  of  white 
clay  mixed  with  an  adhesive  liquid  and  stirred  m  agita- 
tors to  the  consistency  of  thin  cream.  The  color  used  is 
aniline  dye.  Engraved  papers  are  printed  in  oil  colors. 

Flock  Papers  . 

"Flock  papers"  or  velvet  papers  were  first  made  in 
16^0  by  Le  Fran9ois  of  Rouen,  France,  who  spread 
powdered  wool  of  different  colors  on  a  drawing  covered 
with  a  sticky  substance. 


98     PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

The  name  comes  from  the  Latin  floccus,  a  lock  of 
wool.  The  wool  is  dyed  in  hanks  and  then  sheared  in  a 
cutting  machine  to  a  fine  powder.  The  paper  is  first 
coated  with  a  thin  film  of  varnish  and  then  dusted  with 
the  wool  powder  and  beaten  on  the  underside  with  sticks 
to  make  each  fiber  stand  on  end. 

Florentine  flock  is  brushed  to  give  it  the  appearance 
of  a  nap.  Designs  in  oil  colors  are  sometimes  painted 
on  flock  papers.  The  depth  of  color  and  variety  of 
shading  may  be  very  beautiful.  Instead  of  wool, 
powdered  glass,  metallic  dust,  or  mica  may  be  dusted 
on  the  varnished  surface.  Silk  flock  paper  is  also  made 
but  is  very  expensive. 

Japanese  Leather  Papers 

The  paper  is  made  from  the  paper  mulberry  and  is 
pressed,  while  wet,  into  designs  carved  on  wooden 
rollers.  When  it  has  been  well  pounded  into  the  design 
it  is  sized,  covered  with  tin  foil,  lacquered,  and  sten- 
ciled.   The  results  are  quite  gorgeous. 

The  Japanese  also  make  a  grass  cloth  paper.  The 
grass  cloth  is  woven  from  a  vegetable  fiber  with  a  warp 
of  thread.  It  is  pasted  on  paper  which  is  usually  of  a 
different  color  or  has  a  metallic  luster. 

Another  Japanese  paper  is  woven  of  strips  having 
one  color  on  the  face  and  another  on  the  back.  The 
strips  are  turned  over  to  show  the  contrasting  color. 


\t 


WALL  PAPER 


99 


Tea  box  papers  which  have  a  metallic  luster  are  used 
for  ceilings. 

Other  Finishes 

Satin  finish,  crepe  finish,  and  watered  effects  are 
given  by  means  of  special  processes. 

Design  in  Wall  Paper  * 

Wall  paper  designing  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  applied  arts  as  the  room  hangings  form  the  back- 
ground for  all  other  decoration.  The  effect  of  glaring 
contrasts,  bad  color  combinations,  or  ugly  and  obtru- 
sive designs  is  nowhere  more  unfortunate  than  when 
they  are  on  the  walls  where  we  must  look  at  them 
whether  we  want  to  or  not.  They  are  also  responsible 
for  spoiling  the  effect  of  good  pictures  and  well-ar- 
ranged furniture. 

Fashions  in  wall  paper  change  as  in  other  things  but 
there  has  been  a  great  improvement  in  the  treatment  of 
unpretentious  rooms  in  the  past  few  years.  During 
the  period  which  we  call  "Victorian,''  heavy  patterns, 
large  bouquets  of  natural  or  unnatural  flowers,  and 
dark  or  glaring  colors  were  common.  They  have  been 
replaced  by  neutral  colors  which  make  good  back- 
grounds, simple  conventional  designs,  or  allover  pat- 

»  See  Chapters  X  and  XII  in  "Silk  Manual"  for  the  principles  of  color  and 
design. 


I 


i 


m 


lOO    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

terns  which  do  not  attract  too  much  attention  from  the 
pictures  hanging  on  them. 

When  walls  are  not  intended  to  be  a  background  for 
pictures  they  may  have  a  more  pronounced  pattern  and 
very  charming  effects  are  obtained  by  copying  some  of 
the  old  colonial  wall  designs,  especially  if  the  furniture 
is  of  that  period. 

Colors  for  Household  Decoration 

In  selecting  colors  for  a  room  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  everyone  is  more  or  less  sensitive  to  the  in- 
fluence of  color.  Each  color  has  a  distinct  effect  upon 
persons  and  produces  different  sensations  in  different 
moods.     All   intense   colors,   moreover,    need   to  be 

modified. 

In  deciding  on  color  combinations  for  a  room  the  fol- 
lowing facts  must  be  considered : 

The  size  of  the  room. 

The  number  of  windows. 

The  size  of  the  windows. 

The  location  of  room — ^whether  north,  south,  east, 

or  west. 
The  kind  of  room— whether  living  room,  bedroom, 

etc. 
Effect  of  adjoining  rooms. 

One  should  remember  also  that : 


<. 


i 


WALL  PAPER 


lOI 


Yellow  and  its  varying  tones  will  give  light  and 
warmth.  It  is  not  needed  where  a  room  has 
plenty  of  sunlight.  . 

Red  will  appear  to  give  warmth.     Pure  red  is 

exciting.  ^        .         ,   ., 

Blue  will  appear  to  diminish  the   size  of  the 

room. 
Color  harmonies  in  draperies  or  furniture  coverings 
may  be  very  vivid,  especially  if  the  room  is  not  bril- 
liantly lighted,  but  it  is  usually  more  satisfactory  to 
have  one  dominant  color  with  harmomes  of  likeness 
prevailing,  and  only  touches  of  the  brilliant  harmonies 

of  contrast.  .  , 

If  broken  tones  or  colors  of  half-intensity  are  used 
the  harmony  of  contrast  may  be  more  evenly  distributed 
between  the  two  colors. 

Suggestions  for  Color  Schemes 

If  a  good  color  scheme  is  desired,  there  are  three 

reliable  sources  from  which  suggestions  may  be  gained : 

Nature-among  flowers,  the  autumn  leaves,  the 

mosses  and  lichens,  the  birds,  the  shells  and 

minerals,  the  sunset.  _ 

Museums— where  there  are  wonderful  collections 

of  old  tapestries,  embroideries,  etc. 
Pictures— especially  among  the  Japanese  prints, 


II 


I'BW 


I 


'  1 


I02    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

where  color  is  simply  but  daringly  used  with 
unusual  beauty  and  quality. 

William  Morris  in  'The  Lesser  Arts  of  Life"  said : 
"Whatever  you  have  in  your  rooms  think  first  of  the 
walls  for  they  are  that  which  makes  your  house  and 
home  and  if  you  don't  make  some  sacrifice  in  their 
favor  you  will  find  your  chambers  have  a  sort  of  make- 
shift, lodging-house  look  about  them  however  rich 
and  handsome  your  movables  may  be."  William 
Morris  and  Walter  Crane  were  among  the  notable 
artists  who  have  designed  English  wall  papers. 

History 

Men  began  to  decorate  their  walls  and  to  make  wall 
coverings  at  a  very  early  time.  The  decoration  may  be 
traced  historically  through : 

Relief  sculpture 

Glazed  brick  or  tiles 

Stamped  leather 

Painted  canvas  or  cloth 

Printed  hangings  and  wall  papers 

Tapestries  were  much  used  by  the  Greeks  and  leather 
hangings  were  common  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  Europe, 
printed  stuffs  were  used  for  hangings  as  early  as  the 
thirteenth  century. 


( 


Courtesy  of  American  Magazine  of  Art 
Figure  9.     An  Example  of  Scenic  Wall  Paper 

••  Bay  of  Naples  "  paper  formerly  in  the  reception  room  of  Dunbar  Hall. 

Phillips  Academy,  Exeter.  N.  H. 


^^■c 

H^R 


WALL  PAPER 


103 


Old  Wall  Papers 

A  search  for  origins  usually  leads  one  to  Chma  and 
wall  papers  are  no  exception  to  the  rule.  The  Chinese 
and  Japanese  used  paper  hangings  and  -eens  ,n  -  y 
ancient  times,  but  wall  paper  was  not  a  European 
fashion  until  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It 
then  began  to  take  the  place  of  the  woven  ha«gmgs  and 
^pestries  which  had  preceded  it,  and  the  designs  were 
very  similar. 

Chinese  Papers 

The  Chinese  had  painted  and  printed  their  patterns 

with  hand-engraved  wooden  blocks  on  hand-made  paper 

which  was  in  sheets  about  18  inches  square.    A  f  avonte 

Tubiect  was  "The  Cultivation  of  Tea"  and  this  paper 

has  been  found  in  England  and  America.    The  earlier 

natterns  were  made  in  China  but  soon  the  English  and 

French  began  to   imitate  them.     Then  the  pattern. 

changed  from  pagodas  to  castles  and  sylvan  scenes  with 

shepherds  and  shepherdesses. 

Scenic  Wall  Papers 

The  Bible  and  mythology  were  both  drawn  upon  for 

the  subjects  of  these  papers;  other  subjects  were  pic- 

u  es  of  noted  cities  and  free  renderings  of  famou 

paintings.      They    sometimes    required    hundreds    of 

blocks  and  one  French  paper  took  three  thousand.  The 


104   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

small  sheets  were  not  replaced  by  wall  paper  in  strips 
and  rolls  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Color  in  Early  Wall  Papers 

The  scenes  in  these  early  papers  were  sometimes 
small  medallions  surrounded  with  scrolls  or  frames  and 
sometimes  they  covered  the  entire  wall  of  a  room. 
Some  New  England  homes  have  walls  with  these  large 
scenic  papers  in  soft  grey  or  blue  tones  or  in  natural 
colors.  Miss  Kate  Sanborn  in  a  book  called  "Some 
Old-Time  Wall  Papers"  describes  such  a  paper  in  the 
house  where  she  was  born.  She  says  "I  was  a  native 
of  New  Hampshire  and  yet  I  was  bom  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Vesuvius"  because  there  was  a  picture  of  the 
Bay  of  Naples  on  the  wall  of  her  room.     (See  Figure 

9) 


Chapter  X 
HISTORY  OF  PAPER 

Early  Methods  of  Keeping  Records 

From  the  earliest  times  men  have  tried  to  keep 
rrom   uic  tradition,  by  which 

records  of  important  events.    Oral  ^^^^  ''^'''  / 
history  was  handed  down  from  generation  to  genera 
'ot  was  always  subject  to  change  though  the  f^^^^^^ 
to  keep  popular  legends  unchanged  were  more  success 
M  than  could  be  imagined  in  times  when  wntten 

rprords  are  common.  , 

Variations  would  gradually  creep  in.  however^  -d 
memory  needed  some  form  of  assistance.    In  order  to 
mal  the  location  of  a  decisive  battle  or  other  great 
Tvent  Ls  were  sometimes  planted  or  9^^J^on^^ 
erected.     Later  we  find  that  the  bark  of  these  trees 
was  scratched  with  symbolic  pictures  and  carved  o 
painted  monuments  were  made  of  wood  or  stone.  The 
Egyptian  obelisks  and  Alaskan  totem  poles  are  really 
Srical  documents,   and  the  Ten  Commandments 
were  written  on  "tables"  or  tablets  of  stone. 

Then  as  civilization  developed  men  wanted  some 
means  by  which  they  could  send  messages  as  well  as 
TecorS  hfstory  and  laws.  This  led  to  the  use  of  tables 
Of  bone,  ivory,  metals,  and  wood,  either  carved  or 

105 


i 


I06  PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

covered  with  wax  which  could  be  cut  or  incised  with  a 
sharp  instrument.  Skins  of  beasts  were  also  used  to 
write  upon. 

Parchment 

Parchment  is  made  from  the  dried  skins  of  sheep 
and  goats  which  are  thin  and  pliable.  It  was  used  in  the 
ancient  world  for  documents.  An  ancient  library  con- 
sisted of  books  written  on  parchment,  but  the  books 
were  not  made  of  leaves  bound  between  covers.  The 
tanned  skins  were  joined  together  in  a  continuous  strip 
which  was  fastened  to  two  wooden  sticks  and  rolled  up 
so  that  as  one  read  the  book  he  unrolled  the  strip  from 
one  stick  and  rolled  it  on  the  other. 

In  the  year  270  B.C.  the  Jews  carried  a  copy  of  the 
Jewish  Law  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  which  was  written 
in  letters  of  gold  on  skins  so  cleverly  joined  together 
that  the  intersections  could  not  be  seen.  For  many 
centuries  legal  documents  were  always  written  on  parch- 
ment and  many  are  today.  A  diploma  is  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  a  * 'parchment"  or  a  "sheepskin." 

Earliest  Form  of  Paper 

When  men  discovered  that  the  inner  bark  of  trees 
and  plants  could  be  used  for  making  records  the  first 
step  toward  paper-making  was  taken.  Paper  was  made 
by  the  Egyptians  as  early  as  670  b.c.  from  the  stalk  of 


HISTORY  OF  PAPER 


107 


the  papyrus,  a  reed  growing  in  water  about  4  feet  deep 
and  abundant  in  the  river  Nile. 

Ancient  Use  of  Papyrus 

The  papyrus  plant  has  a  horizontal  stem  about  as 
thick  as  a  man's  wrist  from  which  grow  shoots    n 
angular  in  shape,  set  at  right  angles.    Accordmg  to  the 
ancient  metho'd  of  paper-making  the  stalks  were  sh 
with  a  sharp  instrument  into  thin  strips     A  number  of 
The  strips  were  laid  side  by  side  on  a  table  and  covered 
with  other  strips  laid  similarly  but  crossmg  the  first 
ones.    Water  was  then  poured  over  the  layers  and  they 
were  put  under  heavy  weights  which  pressed  them  to^ 
gether,  forming  small  sheets  which  were  dried  m  the 
sun  and  polished  with  smooth  stones  or  ivory.     The 
sheets  were  in  three  sizes,  6,  6/.,  and  7  mches  wide. 
To  make  a  manuscript  the  sheets  were  pasted  together 
in  strips  10,  12,  or  even  20  yards  long  and  rolled  on 
sticks  in  the  same  manner  as  parchment  scrolls. 

The  use  of  papyrus  passed  from  Egypt  to  Greece 
and  Rome,  the  latter  improved  it  with  a  sizing  made  of 
flour  paste.  In  670  B.C.  the  emperor  Numa  left  works 
written  on  papyrus  and  Herodotus  speaks  of  it  in  he 
fifth  century  B.C.  It  continued  to  be  used  until  the 
eleventh  century  a.d.  when  it  was  superseded  by  parch- 
ment and  paper  made  of  cotton.  (See  Chapter  II  for 
modern  use  of  papyrus.) 


f    < 


I08   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

The  First  Real  Paper 

The  Chinese  were  the  first  to  make  paper  from  fibers 
which  had  been  reduced  to  pulp,  though  the  process  was 
very  different  from  the  modern  one.  According  to 
Chinese  records  the  manufacture  was  invented  about 
105  A.D.  by  Ts'ai  Lun.  In  the  year  284  a.d.  the  Em- 
peror of  China  sent  a  present  of  30,000  sheets  of  paper 
to  the  Roman  Emperor  AureHus  Carus. 

This  early  paper  was  made  of  many  materials.  Silk 
cocoons  and  silk  refuse  were  tried  as  well  as  the  stems 
of  bamboo,  but  silk  was  too  expensive  and  bamboo  was 
too  heavy  so  that  combinations  were  made  of  bark, 
hemp,  rags,  fishing  nets,  and  seashore  moss.  The 
fibrous  inner  bark  of  the  paper  mulberry  tree  was  also 
used.     (See  Chapter  II.) 

The  process  of  making  the  pulp  into  paper  was  very 
laborious.  After  the  fiber  had  been  separated  and  re- 
duced to  pulp  by  long  soaking  in  water  it  was  first 
dried  on  frames  of  fine  reed  under  the  pressure  of 
heavy  stones.  It  was  then  wet  a  second  time  and  the 
sheets  were  plastered  on  the  walls  of  a  room.  Finally 
they  were  coated  with  a  gum  size  and  polished  with 
stones.  During  the  fifth  century  the  Chinese  made  a 
paper  which  shone  like  silver.  The  establishment  was 
managed  by  a  special  officer  appointed  by  the  emperor. 
But  in  spite  of  their  early  genius  they  have  no  modern 
paper  mills. 


HISTORY  OF  PAPER 


109 


Japanese  Paper 

Japanese  paper  was  also  made  from  the  paper  mul- 
berry  tree.  The  old  method  was  to  cut  the  twigs  m 
winter,  tie  them  in  bundles,  and  place  in  large  vessels 
filled  with  lye.  They  were  boiled  in  the  lye  until  the 
bark  shrank  away  from  the  top,  then  exposed  to  cool 
air  dried,  and  the  bark  stripped  off.  Later  the  twigs 
were  soaked  in  water  for  three  or  four  days,  cleaned, 
boiled  again  in  a  clear  lye,  and  washed. 

The  softened  mass  was  spread  on  a  table  and  beaten 
with  mallets,  put  in  a  tub  with  an  infusion  of  rice  and 
roots,  spread  on  reed  molds,  and  dried  in  the  sun. 

Present  Methods 

The  Japanese  have  now  adopted  modern  methods. 
A  few  years  ago  a  paper  mill  costing  $4,000,000  was 
fitted  out  with  machinery   from  Watertown,  N.  Y 
Japan  produces  a  thin,  strong,  hand-made  paper  of 
excellent  quality  known  as  "Japanese  copying  paper 
used  for  copying  books.    She  also  makes  a  thick,  tough, 
and  durable  paper  known  as  "Japanese  vellum    suitable 
for  documents  and  a  silky  transparent  paper  from  the 
paper  mulberry  with  a  satin-like  surface  used  in  fine 
books  and  proofs  of  engravings.    A  great  deal  of  paper 
is  used  in  Japan,  some  of  it  for  purposes  which  seem 
peculiar,  such  as  the  inner  walls  of  houses.     Paper 


no   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

screens,  fans,  lanterns,  parasols,  and  other  productions 
are  familiar  to  everyone. 

Paper-Making  in  Europe 

In  the  seventh  century  paper-making  was  brought 
into  Spain  by  the  Arabs  who  had  learned  it  from  either 
the  Chinese  or  Hindoos.  From  Spain  it  went  to  Italy 
where  a  paper  mill  was  established  at  Fabriano  about 
1276.  The  first  French  paper  mill  was  built  as 
early  as  the  year  1189.  This  paper  was  made  at  first 
from  raw  cotton  but  later  from  cotton  rags.  The 
process  was  less  laborious  than  the  making  of  paper 
from  papyrus  and  the  material  cheaper  than  parchment. 
The  manufacture  flourished  in  France  from  whence 
paper  was  for  many  years  exported  to  Holland,  Eng- 
land, Switzerland,  Denmark,  and  Russia. 

Linen  paper  seems  to  have  been  used  first  in  Ger- 
many. The  first  recorded  documents  were  in  1239, 
whereas  the  first  French  document  on  linen  was  in  1270 
and  the  earliest  linen  paper  in  England  was  used  in 
1320.  In  1 7 19  a  Frenchman  discovered  that  paper  could 
be  made  from  the  fiber  of  wood  by  examining  the 
material  of  wasps*  nests.  Straw  paper  was  made  in 
Germany  in  1756.  Kieler  patented  a  process  for 
making  paper  from  wood  in  1840.  This  was  a  grind- 
ing process. 

Chinese  rice  paper,  made  from  the  rice  paper  tree 


HISTORY  OF  PAPER 


III 


or  the  paper  mulberry  (see  above),  ^^J^^'^^^^j;^ 
England  in  1805  for  the  making  of  artificial  Aowe- 
The  Princess  Charlotte  is  said  to  have  given  70  gumeas 
for  a  bouquet  of  these  flowers. 

Many  strange  materials  were  eirt^er  used  o^  sugge  ted 
for  the  making  of  paper.  In  1765  Jacob  Schaffers  of 
Ratisbon  mentioned  sixty,  among  which  were  asbestos 
and  guttapercha.      (See  Appendix.) 

All^aper  was  made  by  hand  until  the  m.ddk  of  the 
eighteenth  century  when  the  engine  mode  of  beating 
was  invented  in  Holland.  During  the  next  hun- 
dred years  constant  improvements  were  made  until 
tl^  n^chines  were  perfected  and  few  changes  have 
ta^en  place  since  1855.  It  required  three  -n^hs 
to  complete  for  delivery  paper  made  by  the  hand 
process. 

American  Industry 

The  first  paper  mill  in  the  United  States  was  bu.lt 
in^irmantoVn,  a  suburb  of  Philadelphia,  in  1690. 
The  owner  was  a  Hollander  named  Wilham  Ri  ten- 
house  or  Rythinghuisen,  who  was  induced  to  start  the 
new  enterprise  by  William  Bradford,  a  printer^  Some 
;rrs  later  Bradford  went  to  New  York  but  he  cor. 
Lued  to  send  to  this  mill  for  his  paper,  sending  back 

''tWs  mTwas  celebrated  in  a  quaint  poem  written 


I' 


112   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

about  this  time  entitled :  **A  short  Description  of  Phila- 
delphia or  a  Relation  of  What  Things  are  known, 
Enjoyed  or  like  to  be  discovered  in  said  Province." 

There  are  26  lines  devoted  to  the  making  of 
paper  and  the  description  ends  with  these  philosophical 
words : 

Then  of  the  rags  our  paper  is  made 
Which  in  process  of  time  does  waste  and  fade, 
So  that  what  comes  of  the  earth  appeareth  plain 
The  same  in  time  returns  to  earth  again. 

The  wasting  and  fading,  however,  was  far  less  to  be 
feared  then  than  now  as  paper  made  from  pure  linen 
rags  lasts  several  times  as  long  as  wood  pulp  paper. 

The  first  watermark  of  this  paper  was  the  word 
"Company,"  afterwards  the  letters  "WR"  were  used  in 
a  monogram  with  a  clover  leaf  on  a  shield  surmounted 
by  a  crown  and  beneath  it  the  word  "Pennsylvania." 
The  clover  device  was  said  to  be  the  town  seal  of 
Germantown. 

The  second  paper  mill  in  the  country  was  also  in 
Germantown.  In  1729  Thomas  Wilcox  built  a  mill 
at  Chester  Creek,  Pa.,  which  supplied  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin with  paper.    He  was  the  first  to  make  bank  note 

paper. 

The  first  paper  mill  in  New  England  was  built  in 
1730  at  Milton,   Mass.     In  the  Boston  Newsletter 


HISTORY  OF  PAPER 


"3 


(founded  in  1705  and  the  first  newspaper  in  America), 
it  was  announced  at  this  time  that  a  "Bell  cart  will  go 
through  Boston  to  collect  rags  for  the  paper  mill  at 
Milton." 

Use  of  Cotton  and  Linen  Rags 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  printed  on 
paper  made  of  the  finest  linen  rags  and  on  special  molds 

and  felts. 

For  many  years  cotton  and  linen  rags  were  used 
almost  exclusively  because  of  the  ease  with  which  they 
could  be  converted  into  pulp  and  the  excellent  quality 
of  the  paper  made  from  them.  Before  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  however,  experiments  had  been 
made  with  straw,  grasses,  and  wood  especially  for 
newsprint  paper,  for  which  the  publishers  could  never 
secure  enough  rags. 

The  Philadelphia  Public  Ledger  was  printed  on  straw 
paper  as  early  as  1854,  and  the  New  York  Examiner 
of  March  19,  1863,  was  on  paper  80  per  cent  wood 
pulp.  As  the  use  of  paper  increased,  the  supply  of  rags 
became  far  too  limited  for  the  demand.  Paper-makers 
were  accustomed  to  advertise  for  rags  from  discarded 
clothing  and  household  linen  as  well  as  the  scraps  and 
cuttings  from  factories.  As  far  back  as  1807  a  paper 
mill  in  New  York  printed  a  "Poetic  Address  to 
Ladies" : 

8 


I 


PP  1 


114   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Sweet  ladies  pray  be  not  offended 
Nor  mind  the  jests  of  sneering  wags. 
No  harm,  believe  us,  is  intended 
When  humbly  we  request  your  rags. 

In  spite  of  all  efforts  to  collect  this  superior  paper 
material  it  was  necessary  to  find  other  resources  and 
gradually  straw,  grasses,  and  wood  fiber  have  been 
substituted  for  all  the  cheaper  grades  of  paper.  Of  all 
these  wood  has  become  the  greatest  source  of  supply  in 
the  United  States. 

Extent  of  Present-Day  Industry 

At  least  thirty-five  states  are  interested  in  the  paper 
industry.  New  York  has  the  greatest  output.  Maine 
comes  next,  with  Wisconsin  and  Massachusetts  third 
and  fourth,  the  latter  ranking  first  in  the  output  of 
writing  and  book  papers.  New  York  leads  in  the  pro- 
duction of  wood  pulp,  with  Maine  second  and  Wiscon- 
sin third.  Massachusetts  leads  in  the  value  of  the 
output  because  of  its  nearness  to  forests,  good  water 
power,  skilled  labor,  cheap  and  convenient  transporta- 
tion. She  produces  rag  and  finer  writing  papers,  also 
book  and  ledger  papers.  The  city  of  Holyoke  has 
twenty- four  mills,  turning  out  200  tons  of  paper  a  day, 
and  is  the  greatest  paper  center  in  the  world.  A  list  of 
manufacturers  of  writing  paper  is  given  in  the  Ap- 
pendix. 


HISTORY  OF  PAPER 


115 


Canadian  Industry 

The  first  paper  mill  in  Canada  was  built  in  St.  An- 
drews, Quebec,  in  1803.  In  1918  there  were  94  estab- 
lishments, of  which  37  were  pulp  mills,  31  paper  mills, 
and  26  combined  both  processes.  About  40  per  cent  of 
the  increase  was  between  19 17  and  191 8.  In  1919 
Canada  exported  to  the  United  States  chemical  wood 
pulp  valued  at  $26,256,265,  mechanical  wood  pulp 
valued  at  $4,418,555,  and  paper  valued  at  $39,666,535, 
and  imported  from  the  United  States  paper  and  manu- 
factures of  paper  valued  at  $8,564,940.  According 
to  the  capital  invested,  paper  ranks  second  among 
Canadian  manufactures,  but  according  to  the  valuation 
of  manufactures  exported  by  Canada  it  ranks  first. 


t 


Chronology  of  the  Principal  Inventions  and  Patents 

1750    The  cylinder  or  engine  mode  of  beating  was  mvented 

in  Holland. 
1774    Chlorine  gas  combined  with  lime  was  first  used  for 

bleaching. 
1799    Robert  Lewis  made  the  first  paper  on  an  endless  web 

machine.    John  Gamble  and  Leger  Didot  obtained 

an  English  patent  for  it. 
1804    Henry  and  Sealy  Fourdrinier  purchased  the  patents  of 

Didot  and  Gamble  and  perfected  the  Fourdrinier 

machine.     (They  spent  a  fortune  on  it  and  died  in 

poverty.) 
1827    M.  Obry,  a  Frenchman,  began  to  size  paper  in  a  vat 


i" 


11 


' 


Il6  PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

with  a  solution  of  alum  and  rosin  dissolved  in  soda 
and  combined  with  potato  starch. 

1828  Crompton  and  Taylor  obtained  an  English  patent  for 

cutting  paper  lengthwise  by  means  of  circular 
revolving  knives. 

1829  Thomas  Cobb  invented  a  process  of  embossing  paper 

by  pressing  the  pulp  between  rollers  or  plates,  either 
engraved  or  covered  with  cloth  having  a  raised 
pattern. 

1830  Thomas  Gilpin  patented  the  finishing  of  paper  with 

calenders. 
1855    Watt  and  Burgess  of  London  experimented  with  wood 
for  paper-making. 


I 


I 


Chapter  XI 

ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING 

Orders  for  Engraving 

Special  order,  or  made-to-order  engraving  is  usually 
in  the  hands  of  a  special  saleswoman,  who  should  know 
the  technical  features  of  engraving  so  as  to  handle  the 
order  intelligently.     The  three  classes  of  orders  are : 

Printing  from  engraved  plates  (cards,  invitations, 

announcements,  etc.). 
Embossing  (monograms,  crests,  addresses). 
Printing  from  type   (an  imitation  of  engraved 

work,  for  programs,  menus,  etc.). 

How  Engraving  Is  Done 

The  engraver  must  be  a  very  skillful  workman.  He 
cuts  the  design  to  be  printed  in  the  metal  plate  with  a 
burin  or  graver,  a  small  bar  of  pointed  steel  set  in  a 
wooden  handle.  It  requires  accurate  work  to  incise 
the  design  at  the  right  depth  and  also  to  reproduce  it  in 
inverse  form.^ 

1  The  balance  of  this  chapter  is  taken  from  Isert's  Engraving  Educator 
by  permission  of  the  author. 

117 


Il8  PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Intaglio  Engraving 

This  is  the  proper  and  general  trade  term  that  in- 
cludes all  steel  and  copper  plate  and  die  engraving. 
Printing  or  stamping  from  intaglio  plates  differs  from 
all  other  printing  processes  since  the  impression  is 
made  by  the  part  of  the  plate  lying  belov/  the  surface. 

Copper  Plate  Engraving 

This  refers  to  all  work  cut  or  engraved  in  copper. 
The  principal  common  uses  for  copper  plate  engraving 
are  cards  for  social  and  business  purposes  and  invita- 
tions for  all  purposes  where  not  more  than  4,000  or 
5,000  impressions  are  to  be  run  from  the  plate.  Work 
of  similar  character  for  many  other  purposes  is  cut  on 
copper;  in  fact,  there  is  considerably  more  engraving 
on  copper  than  upon  steel. 

Steel  Plate  Engraving 

This  is  similar  in  many  respects  to  copper  plate,  al- 
though steel  is  susceptible  of  a  much  greater  variety  of 
work  through  the  various  mediums  of  engraving,  etch- 
ing, and  transferring.  For  long  runs  the  steel  plate, 
because  of  its  hardness  and  wearing  qualities,  is  the 
only  metal  that  should  be  employed.  The  steel  plate 
may  be  used  for  every  purpose  that  the  copper  plate  is 
used  for,  and  in  addition  for  the  production  of  bank- 
note work,  certificates,  bonds,  and  commercial  headings. 


, 


ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING 


no 


Steel  Die  Engraving 

This  is  something  different  from  steel  plate  engrav- 
ing. Dies  are  cut  or  sunk  in  steel  approximately  one- 
half  inch  thick.  Monograms,  address  dies,  crests, 
business  and  professional  headings,  and  heavily  raised 
designs  for  all  purposes  are  some  of  the  familiar 
products  of  steel  die  engraving,  or  die  sinking  as  it  is 
also  called. 

Copper  Plate  Printing 

This  is  accomplished  through  covering  the  surface 
of  the  plate,  both  the  engraved  and  blank  parts,  with 
ink.  The  surplus  is  wiped  and  polished  off,  leaving 
the  ink  in  the  cut  lines.  Then  the  sheet  or  card  is  laid 
on  the  plate  and  passed  through  rollers,  the  pressure 
forcing  the  ink  to  adhere  to  the  paper.  Nearly  all 
copper  plate  impressions  are  made  with  black  inks, 
copper  not  being  very  well  adapted  for  the  use  of  col- 
ored inks.  The  prints  from  copper  plates  when  well 
executed  are  soft  and  velvety  in  appearance,  never 
glossy,  and  sharp  and  clean  cut,  with  a  solid,  deep  color 
due  to  the  mass  of  ink  which  makes  the  impression. 

Steel  Plate  Printing 

This  does  not  differ  greatly  from  copper  plate  print- 
ing, the  same  general  rules  applying  except  that  the 
hardness  of  the  metal  and  the  higher  polish  of  the 


j\ 


,  '■ 


I20   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

plate  surface  give  it  working  qualities  along  much 
broader  lines  than  copper.  Thus,  all  colors  are  work- 
able in  steel  plate  printing,  which  is  not  the  case  in  cop- 
per plate  printing.  Very  large  steel  plates  with  the 
subject  repeated  many  times,  like  United  States  postage 
stamps,  are  employed  in  bank-note  plate  printing. 

Steel  Die  Embossing  or  Stamping 

The  terms  stamping  and  embossing  are  both  em- 
ployed to  designate  the  making  of  impressions  from 
steel  dies.  This  must  not  be  confused  -vith  plate  print- 
ing, for  in  printing  plates  the  entire  sheet  or  most  of 
it  is  under  pressure  as  it  passes  between  rollers. 
Stamping  or  embossing  from  dies  is  a  direct  up  and 
down  striking  movement.  The  pressure  is  very  great, 
but  it  is  exerted  only  on  that  portion  of  the  stock  where 
the  die  is  stamped.  The  principle  of  inking  and  wip- 
ing a  die  is  to  some  extent  the  same  as  in  the  older  art 
of  plate  printing. 

Stamping  is  the  process  used  for  monogram,  crest, 
and  address  work  on  fine  note  papers  and  commercial 
headings.  A  surface  die  or  one  lightly  cut  produces 
an  impression  raised  but  slightly  above  the  surface  of 
■  the  paper.  A  sunk  die  gives  a  highly  elevated  impres- 
sion. As  to  variety  of  impressions,  die  stamping  or 
embossing  offers  the  widest  range  of  any  form  of  in- 
taglio engraving.     Water  color  inks,  oil  inks,  varnish 


ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING 


121 


inks,  and  all  kinds  of  bronzes  are  workable  in  stamp- 
ing. The  high-gloss  impressions  are  produced  with 
varnish  colors,  the  flat  or  dull  effects  from  ink  similar 
to  those  used  in  plate  printing,  and  brilliant  bronze 
work  from  special  inks,  the  chief  ingredient  of  which 
is  either  gold,  silver,  or  other  bronze  powders. 

Illumination 

This  is  a  variation  of  stamping.  Such  impressions 
are  partly  stamped,  partly  hand-painted.  Illuminating 
is  the  hand-painting  of  backgrounds  that  are  not  part 
of  the  engraving  proper. 

Care  of  Plates  and  Dies 

Plates  and  dies  should  be  very  carefully  handled. 
The  two  things  that  injure  them  are  rust  and  scratches. 

Scratches  or  holes  in  the  metal  hold  the  ink  the  same 
as  the  engraving,  and  must  be  removed. 

If  a  rust  spot  occurs  in  the  engraving,  its  removal 
will  either  tone  down  the  engraving  or  leave  a  hole  in 
the  plate.  Moisture,  or  even  the  perspiration  from  the 
finger  tips  will  often  cause  rust  on  the  plates.  In  the 
case  of  copper  plates,  the  slight  discoloration  often 
seen  between  the  runs  does  no  particular  harm. 

Steel  plates  and  dies  require  the  same  care  that  the 
copper  ones  do.  Steel  does  not  scratch  so  easily,  but 
it  rusts  very  quickly.     Engravers  always  dry  the  sur- 


M 


122   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

face  of  steel  plates  and  dies  after  use,  and  coat  them 
with  wax  or  varnish  to  prevent  rusting.  This  coating 
should  not  be  removed  by  anyone  except  the  engraver. 
Plates  and  dies  should  therefore  always  be  kept  in 
a  dry  place  and  handled  as  little  as  possible.  The  best 
rule  to  follow  is  to  leave  the  plate  in  the  envelope  or 
wrapper.     When  examining  it,  handle  it  by  its  edge. 

Writing  the  Copy  for  the  Engraver 

Engravers  seldom  send  proofs  of  their  work  and  it 
is  not  wise  to  make  alterations  on  a  finished  plate. 
Engraver's  copy,  therefore,  should  be  absolutely  cor- 
rect and  clearly  written.  The  writers  of  poor  copy 
will  never  admit  that  it  is  not  perfectly  clear  because 
it  is  readable  to  them.  Close  inspection  will  show, 
however,  that  the  n's,  m's,  u's,  and  i's  of  many  poor 
writers,  as  well  as  I's,  h's,  and  k's,  are  so  similar  that 
only  their  place  in  the  word  or  sentence  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  other  people  to  read  it.  In  the  case  of  proper 
names,  guessing  is  almost  sure  to  lead  to  errors  for 
which  the  engraver  is  not  responsible.  The  best  way 
to  avoid  them  is  to  send  clear,  typewritten  copy;  the 
next  best  is  to  use  block  letters  similar  to  printed  type. 

Origin  of  Engraving 

Line  engraving  and  plate  printing  were  suggested 
by   the  goldsmith's   work   about   the  middle   of   the 


ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING 


123 


fifteenth  century.  Some  of  the  goldsmith's  ornamen- 
tation consisted  of  designs  cut  out  of  the  metal  and 
then  filled  up  with  black  enamel.  From  this  originated 
the  idea  of  filling  incisions  with  a  certain  ink,  wiping 
off  the  surface  of  the  plate  and  pressing  paper  over  it 
until  the  design  was  printed  upon  the  paper. 

Imitation  of  Engraving 

There  is  an  imitation  of  both  steel  and  copper  plate 
engraving,  made  by  ordinary  type.  The  ink  is  heated 
which  causes  it  to  swell  and  makes  an  embossed  sur- 
face, giving  the  effect  of  engraving. 

Printing  from  Type 

A  cheaper  way  of  preparing  cards  is  by  type  print- 
ing, which,  of  course,  is  not  engraving  at  all.  The  sur- 
face of  the  set  type  is  coated  with  ink,  which  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  paper  or  other  material  by  pressure.  It 
is  the  same  process  as  that  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  daily  paper.  Type  or  steam  press  printing  is  used 
for  programs,  menus,  "  in  memoriam  "  cards,  etc. 

Artistic  printing  grew  out  of  the  desire  of  the  ed- 
ucated artisan  to  display  his  skill  in  ornamental  work, 
with  brilliant  color,  original  design,  and  perfect  finish. 


i 


ft 
n 


Chapter  XII 

ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING  (Continued) 

Styles  and  Social  Customs 

Many  customers  ask  the  salesperson  for  advice  as 
to  suitable  styles,  sizes,  colors,  and  tasteful  decora- 
tions of  paper  and  cards,  as  well  as  to  the  correct  plac- 
ing of  addresses  and  monograms,  particularly  when 
the  customer  herself  is  not  familiar  with  the  prevailing 

styles. 

Expert  service  of  this  kind  demands  a  knowledge  of 
appropriateness  of  color,  line,  and  style,  which  is 
gained  not  merely  by  experience  in  selling,  but  by  an 
acquaintance  with  certain  guiding  principles  of  art  as 
to  color,  harmony,  and  design. 

The  salesperson  should  be  familiar  with  the  social 
customs  of  the  day.  She  should  not  only  have  a 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  good  taste  and  appro- 
priateness, but  she  should  also  keep  in  touch  with  pre- 
vailing styles.  The  latter  may  be  learned  from  high 
grade  stationers.  Customs  will  vary  from  time  to 
time,  but  good  taste  is  always  conservative  and  avoids 

124 


ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING 


125 


startling  and  conspicuous  effects.  She  should  know 
the  proper  materials,  forms  and  sizes  for  wedding  and 
anniversary  announcements. 

The  following  rules  are  now  in  vogue  as  to  the 
proper  forms  for  visiting  cards,  invitations,  and  mono- 
grams. 

Sizes  of  Visiting  Cards 

Cards  vary  in  size  according  to  their  users. 

Men's  cards  are  smaller  than  women's.  The  size 
in  common  use  is  the  club  card,  which  measures 
2^%6Xi%6  inches.  This  card  may  be  used  when 
calling,  or  may  accompany  a  lady's  card.  A  larger 
size,  measuring  3%6X  i^Ke  inches,  is  used  by  mem- 
bers of  the  diplomatic  corps  in  Washington,  and  in 
cases  where  an  exceptionally  long  name  prohibits 
the  use  of  a  smaller  card.  Men's  cards  should  bear 
merely  the  name,  although  cards  to  be  used  when 
men  call  on  each  other  may  bear  also  the  name  of  a 

club. 

Misses'  cards  measure  approximately  2^%6X2K6 

inches. 

The  matron's  size  is  larger,  measuring  3^x2% 
inches,  and  may  also  bear  the  address.  Many  fashion- 
able engravers  use  the  same  size  cards  for  both  Miss 
and  Mrs.,  about  2x3  inches. 

A  card  bearing  the  name  of  husband  and  wife,  which 


126  PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

is  used  for  joint  sending  of  gifts,  at  home  cards, 
Christmas  cards,  etc.,  is  3%6  x  2^4  inches. 

Styles  of  Lettering 

The  style  of  lettering  to  be  selected  is  another  im- 
portant consideration  in  visiting  cards.     (See  Figure 

lo.) 

Formerly,  heavy,  ornate  styles  were  popular,  but  in 
recent  years  these  have  been  replaced  by  lighter  styles. 
For  this  reason  Old  English  and  Caxton  are  not  at 
present  fashionable,  though  always  in  good  form,  and 
Gothic  and  Roman  block  letters  are  used  for  business 
cards  only. 

Ninety  per  cent  of  all  social  engraving  is  in  English 
script,  and  this  style  is  always  looked  upon  with  favor. 

Modified  Roman  is  the  most  fashionable  style  at 

present. 

Louis  XV  is  a  very  popular  style  at  the  present  time. 
It  is  a  combination  of  two  styles,  the  French  Roman 
being  used  for  all  proper  names,  and  script  for  the 
rest  of  the  card.  This  combination  gives  a  dignified, 
yet  light  and  delicate  appearance. 

Forms  of  Visiting  Cards 

The  form  in  which  the  name  is  to  appear  is  purely 
a  personal  matter.  Some  prefer  to  use  the  complete 
name,  others  prefer  initials. 

In  the  case  of  unmarried  women,  the  eldest  daugh- 


ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING  127 

Mrs.Reginald  E.Madison 
MrAVili-iam  H.Bdtgham 

>fr.  Gilbert  Day  Clinton 

DR.LlNI>SArA^?ARINOKKAN 
MR.CDMUND  EARL  BUICK 

Walter  Shelpon  Brewster 


Figure  10.     Styles  of  Engraving 

A    atiH    R— Shaded    Roman.   C   and   D— Black   Roman.     E   and   F — Gothic 
G-Shaded  Old  English      H-Black  Old  English.     J-Shaded  French  Script. 

K.    L,   and   M — Script. 


128   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

ter  may  omit  her  given  name  from  her  card,  using 
simply  "  Miss."  In  case  an  older  branch  of  the  family 
resides  in  the  same  locality,  however,  it  is  not  consid- 
ered good  form  for  any  other  than  the  eldest  daughter 
of  the  eldest  branch  to  use  this  form. 

If  an  address  is  to  be  given,  the  lower  right-hand 
corner  is  preferred,  but,  when  it  is  necessary  to  change 
the  plate,  it  is  permissible  to  have  it  appear  in  the  lower 
left  corner. 

Wedding  Invitations  and  Announcements 

Wedding  invitations  and  the  cards  accompanying 
them  must  be  correct  in  every  detail.  No  other  social 
form  has  such  strict  rules. 

The  size,  shape,  and  finish  of  the  paper  used  for 
invitations  varies  from  year  to  year.  The  correct 
styles  can  always  be  learned  from  the  proper  authori- 
ties, the  engravers.  None  but  the  finest  quality  of 
paper  and  the  best  of  workmanship  properly  expresses 
the  sentiment  surrounding  the  occasion.  The  present 
style  is  to  use  a  white,  angora  finish  paper  and  a  long, 
narrow  form  which  fits  an  almost  square  envelope. 
The  plate-marked  panel  is  also  much  used. 

The  styles  of  lettering  most  used  are  Louis  XV, 
shaded  Roman,  and  English  script. 

The  invitations  are  issued  and  paid  for  by  the 
bride's  parents,  or  surviving  parent.     In  case  neither 


ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING 


129 


parent  is  living,  a  married  brother  and  wife,  married 
sister  and  husband,  bachelor  brother,  the  nearest  rela- 
tive, or  guardian  issues  them. 

Forms  of  invitations  to  church  weddings  and  an- 
nouncements may  be  either  personal  or  impersonal,  ac- 
cording to  the  following  models : 

Personal  Form  of  Wedding  Invitation 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  James  Seymour  Bennett 
request  the  honour  of 


presence  at  the  marriage  of  their  daughter 

Mabel  Louise 

to 

Mr.  Arthur  Symonds  Hancock 

on  Wednesday,  the  ninth  of  June 

one  thousand,  nine  hundred  and  seventeen 

at  half  after  four  0  clock 

at  the  Church  of  the  Ascension 

in  the  City  of  New  York 

Impersonal  Form  of  Wedding  Invitation 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  James  Seymour  Bennett 

request  the  honour  of  your 

presence  at  the  marriage  of  their  daughter 

Mabel  Louise 

to 

Mr.  Arthur  Symonds  Hancock 

on  Wednesday,  the  ninth  of  June 

one  thousand,  nine  hundred  and  seventeen 

at  half  after  four  o'clock 

at  the  Church  of  the  Ascension 

in  the  City  of  New  York 


I30   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Wedding  Announcement 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  James  Seymour  Bennett 

have  the  honour  of 

announcing  the  marriage  of  their  daughter 

Mabel  Louise 

to 

Mr.  Arthur  Symonds  Hancock 

on  Wednesday,  the  ninth  of  June 

one  thousand,  nine  hundred  and  seventeen 

at  half  after  four  o* clock 

at  the  Church  of  the  Ascension 

in  the  City  of  New  York 

Invitation  to  the  Wedding  Reception 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  James  Seymour  Bennett 
request  the  pleasure  of 


company  on  Wednesday,  the  ninth  of  June 

at  Hve  o'clock 

at  Seven  hundred  and  twenty  Madison  Avenue 

Card  of  Admission  to  the  Church 

Please  present  this  card 

at  the  Church  of  the  Ascension 

Fifth  Avenue  at  Tenth  Street 

on  Wednesday,  the  ninth  of  June 

At  Home  Card 

Will  he  at  home 

on  Wednesdays,  after  the  tenth  of  September 

^00  Sunnyside  Avenue 

Newark,  New  Jersey 


ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING 


131 


Customs  as  to  Wedding  Invitations 

If  the  guest  is  invited  to  the  church  ceremony  only, 
the  card  of  admission  to  the  church  should  be  enclosed, 
but  if  invited  to  the  reception,  and  the  guest  is  to  call 
at  the  home,  the  card  to  the  reception  and  the  "  at- 
home  "  card  should  be  enclosed.  In  cases  where  the 
wedding  is  to  take  place  at  a  country  house,  a  card 
giving  the  departure  and  arrival  of  trains  to  and  from 
the  point  at  which  the  ceremony  is  to  be  held,  is  also 
sometimes  enclosed. 

Invitations  should  be  issued  two  or  three  weeks  be- 
fore the  wedding,  and  announcements  sent  immediately 

after  the  ceremony. 

Invitations  and  announcements  are  always  enclosed 

in  double  envelopes. 

For  church  weddings  the  old  English  spelling 
"  honour  "  is  always  used,  and  many  prefer  it  for  all 
occasions. 

Invitations  for  Other  Occasions 

Other  occasions  for  which  engraved  invitations  are 
commonly  issued  are : 

Dinners  and  banquets 

Evening  receptions 

Dances 

Teas 

At-homes 


i    } 


132    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Fraternal  and  club  affairs 

Public  events 

Business  openings  and  displays 

Forms 

Invitations  for  evening  affairs,  such  as  dinners  and 
receptions,  are  issued  in  the  names  of  both  host  and 
hostess ;  those  for  afternoon  affairs,  as  teas,  at-homes, 
etc.,  in  the  name  of  the  hostess  only. 

If  an  answer  is  expected,  it  is  customary  to  place  in 
the  corner  "R.  S.  V.  P.,"  "Please  respond,"  or  "The 
favor  of  an  answer  is  requested."  No  acceptances  are 
necessary  for  afternoon  at-homes  or  teas. 

Dinner  dances  require  two  forms  of  invitations,  one 
for  the  dinner  guests  with  "  Dancing  after  ten  "  in  the 
corner,  and  another  in  the  form  of  an  at-home  with 
"  Dancing  after  ten  "  in  the  comer  for  those  invited 
for  the  dance  only. 

Those  who  entertain  extensively  often  have  an  en- 
graved form  with  blank  spaces  to  be  filled  in  for  the 
various  occasions. 

Sizes  and  Styles 

The  usual  size  for  invitation  cards  is  about  3x5 
inches.  A  larger  square  is  very  popular  at  the  present 
time,  and  a  plate-marked  panel  is  also  in  favor. 

For  bridge  parties,  etc.,  it  is  permissible  to  use  a 


ENGRWING  AND  PRINTING 


133 


small  emblem,  such  as  a  minature  card  design  or  mono- 
gram, on  the  invitation. 

Monograms 

The  monogram  is  an  expression  of  the  individuality 
of  the  person  it  represents,  as  no  one  else  can  use  it. 
Although  it  may  be  largely  influenced  by  fashion  and 
fancy,  there  are  always  certain  features  to  be  kept  in 
mind. 

Styles  of  Monograms 

The  styles  usually  follow  very  closely  those  in  vogue 
for  engraving  upon  jewelry  and  silverware.  For  sev- 
eral seasons  the  long,  narrow  monogram  has  been  in 
favor,  but  the  recent  tendency  has  been  toward  round, 
oval, '  and  diamond-shaped  forms.  The  fact  that 
Chinese  and  Japanese  initials  are  being  used  so  largely 
on  signet  rings  has  made  this  style  popular  for  letter 
paper  monograms.  Conservative  styles,  always  in 
good  taste,  are  plain  script  monograms,  and  plain  block 
initials  in  either  Roman  or  Old  English. 

Addresses 

Many  people  prefer  to  use  their  address  instead  of 
a  monogram  as  a  heading  for  note  or  letter  paper,  and 
in  guest  rooms  it  is  customary  to  supply  paper  bearing 
the  address  of  the  hostess.  Sometimes  street  numbers 
are  given  in  figures;  in  other  cases  the  numbers  are 


i 


ill 


134   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 


.  I 


written  out.  When  three  or  four  numbers  are  re- 
quired, the  written  number  is  apt  to  be  awkwardly 
long  and  figures  are  preferable. 

Crests  and  Coats  of  Arms 

Crests  and  coats  of  arms  are  an  inheritance  from 
the  days  of  chivalry  when  every  knight  was  known 
by  his  coat  of  arms,  a  symbolic  device  denoting  his 
rank  and  family. 

The  coat  of  arms  was  a  figure  in  the  shape  of  a 
shield  such  as  the  knight  carried  in  battle.  This  shield 
was  sometimes  divided  into  four  sections  with  small 
figures  in  each  section;  sometimes  it  had  one  large 
emblem  which  filled  the  whole  space.  Above  the  shield 
was  a  helmet  with  flying  drapery  called  "  mantling  " 
and  above  that  a  wreath  supporting  a  figure  or  part 
of  a  figure,  such  as  a  lion  or  a  deer  or  an  arm  holding 
a  sword.  This  upper  part  was  called  the  "crest," 
while  the  shield  and  crest  combined,  either  with  or 
without  the  helmet,  was  called  the  coat  of  arms. 
Royal  families  had  crowns  instead  of  helmets,  and  in 
each  case  the  device  was  usually  completed  with  the 
motto  of  the  family. 

Strict  rules  were  made  regarding  the  use  of  a  coat 
of  arms  or  crest.  Lists  of  all  families  entitled  to  them 
were  compiled  and  in  books  of  "  Heraldry  "  the  proper 
markings  for  all  noble  families  were  described.     The 


ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING  135 

devices  were  beautifully  embroidered  on  banners  or 
clothing,  were  cut  in  castle  walls  and  on  silver  plate, 
and  were  engraved  on  bookplates  and  stationery 

In  democratic  countries  heraldry  has  no  hereditary 
class  to  enforce  its  rules  and  some  people  who  have  no 
knowledge  of  its  meaning  choose  crests  and  coats  of 
arms  according  to  their  fancy,  but,  as  a  very  large 
number  of  Americans  are  descended  from  arms-bear- 
ing families,  such  assumptions  only  lead  to  ridicule. 
If  customers  bring  in  their  own  dies  for  stamping 
crests  or  coats  of  arms  on  paper,  the  saleswoman  is  only 
required  to  send  the  order  to  a  competent  engraver, 
observing  the  rules  of  the  store  in  such  matters   but 
she  should  not  take  the  responsibility  of  giving  advice 
regarding  this  kind  of  social  usage.     Not  one  en- 
graver in  fifty  understands  heraldry,  which  is  the  work 
of  highly  paid  experts.     To  take  orders  for  heraldic 
engraving  one  must  have  some  knowledge  of  gen- 
ealogy, heraldic  marshaling  and  blazoning,  and  under- 
stand  the  rather  difficult  technical  features  of  cutting 
such  plates  and  dies.     This  is  not  within  the  province 
of  the  department  store. 


II 


II 


hM 


LEATHER  GOODS 


137 


i  *. 


iSl 


Chapter  Xni 

LEATHER  GOODS 

Articles 

Among  the  more  or  less  varied  articles  found  in 
the  leather  goods  division  of  the  Stationery  Depart- 
ment are  diaries,  memorandum  and  other  leather  cov- 
ered books,  desk  sets,  writing  pads,  book  covers,  cal- 
endars, telephone  pads,  calling  and  laundry  pads,  stamp 
boxes,  clock  cases,  score  pads,  etc. 

Leathers  and  their  manufacture  are  therefore  of 
importance  to  both  salespeople  and  purchasers.  For 
fancy  articles,  color,  finish,  and  decoration  are  the  first 
considerations,  while  for  useful  articles,  such  as  diaries 
and  book  covers,  it  is  a  question  of  material. 

Leathers 

The  leather  goods  of  the  Stationery  Department  are 
manufactured  chiefly  from  sheepskin,  goatskin,  calf- 
skin, pigskin,  and  cowhide,  though  they  are  usually 
known  by  the  tanning  and  finish  which  are  given  to 
the  skin,  as  Levant,  Russia,  Morocco,  parchment,  and 
vellum.     Alligator  skin  and  seal  are  also  used,  but 

136 


much  of  the  "seaV'  is  an  imitation  made  by  putting  an 
artificial  grain  on  a  cheaper  leather. 

Russia  Leather 

Russia  leather  was  originally  calfskin  tanned  with 
birch  bark  which  gave  it  its  fragrance,  being  so  named 
because  the  Russians  first  used  this  process.  The  older 
Russia  leather  was  colored  a  deep  red,  but  now  may  be 
brown  or  black.  In  this  country  the  tanning  is  often 
done  with  chemicals,  birch  bark  oil  being  added  to  give 
the  odor. 

Morocco 

Morocco  was  a  goatskin  first  made  in  Morocco. 
Like  Russia  leather,  it  was  vegetable-tanned  and 
stained  red,  but  the  term  is  now  applied  to  any  goatskm 
or  calfskin  which  resembles  the  Morocco  finish. 

Parchment  and  Vellum 

Parchment  was  sheepskin  or  goatskin  prepared  by 
steeping  the  skins  in  lime  pits  and  then  separating  them. 
Pumice  stone  and  chalk  was  used  to  give  them  the 
proper  color  and  a  surface  suitable  for  writing  pur- 
poses. Vellum  was  prepared  by  a  similar  process  from 
calfskin  which  is  finer  than  sheep  or  goatskins.  Both 
parchment  and  vellum  are  now  imitated  in  paper. 

Levant 

Levant  leather  has  an  embossed  or  printed  surface 


sssas, 


138   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

finished  in  grain,  and  dressed  with  oil.  The  embossing 
is  done  with  an  engraved  roller  which  is  passed  over 
the  dampened  skin.  After  this  the  leather  is  blacked 
with  logwood,  softened,  and  grained. 

Tanning  and  Dressing 

For  the  tanning  and  dressing  of  leather,  see  manual 
on  * 'Leather  Goods  and  Gloves." 

The  natural  grain  and  gloss  of  leather  is  brought  out 
by  the  various  processes  of  finishing,  such  as  buffing 
or  ironing,  sueding  or  fluffing.  An  imitation  grain 
may  be  put  on  by  boarding  or  pressing  into  the  mois- 
tened leather  a  heavy  roller  with  the  design  cut  into  it. 

Tooling 

Leather  is  also  decorated  by  tooling,  which  may  be 
done  in  any  of  the  following  ways : 

1.  Incising,  by  which  the  outlines  of  the  design  are 
made  by  an  incising  knife  and  then  opened  by  an 
opener,  making  a  flat  decoration  sometimes  called 
engraved  or  cut  leather.  In  carving,  the  design  is  cut 
much  deeper  than  in  incising,  leaving  a  design  which 
stands  out  in  sufficient  relief  to  be  further  ornamented. 
A  thick,  firm  leather  is  necessary  for  carving. 

2.  Embossifig,  by  which  the  design  is  outlined  and 
raised  on  the  surface  by  means  of  pressure  from  the 
back,  making  it  stand  out  in  high  relief.     Padding  of 


LEATHER  GOODS 


139 


wax  cotton,  or  leatherette  is  usually  inserted.  Model- 
ing tools  are  used  on  the  embossed  design  m  order  to 
make  it  more  effective. 

3  Hammering  or  punching,  which  is  usually  used 
for  backgrounds  and  done  by  steel  punches  of  different 
patterns  to  add  richness  and  finish. 

4.  Stamping,  by  which  the  design  is  sunk  mto  the 
dampened  leather  by  an  incised  steel  die  held  m  a  press. 
Stamped  leather  may  be  finished  by  hand  to  look  like 

tooled  leather. 

5  Burning,  or  etching  or  engraving  with  fire,  where 
the  design  is  made  by  a  platinum  pointed  tool,  an 
alcohol  lamp,  and  benzene.  This  is  a  method  of  deco- 
ration most  effective  on  soft-finished  leather  and  also 
on  wood,  paper,  and  ivory. 

Design 

Natural  designs  are  not  so  appropriate  for  tooling  as 
the  conventional  or  geometrical  forms ;  first,  because 
leather  is  a  rather  unyielding  material,  and  secondly, 
because  leather  articles  are  expected  to  withstand  hard 
usage  designs  drawn  from  nature  have  too  much  de- 
tail In  modeled  work  bold,  but  not  too  elaborate 
or  detailed,  designs  are  most  suitable.  Embossing  m 
low  relief  and  with  flowing  lines  makes  the  decoration 
seem  a  part  of  the  leather  and  suggests  rather  than 
forces  the  design  upon  the  attention. 


I  .. 


140   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Color 

Color  is  much  used  in  fancy  leather  goods.  It  is 
produced  by  dyeing  the  skins  with  aniline  dyes  or  by 
staining  the  finished  article.  Sprinkling,  spraying, 
marbling,  or  shading  also  give  various  color  effects. 
In  tooled  leather,  color  is  often  produced  by  using 
various  colors  of  India  ink.  Bright  color  may  be 
effectively  used  in  certain  kinds  of  design,  especially 
Moorish  or  geometrical  patterns,  which  are  also  highly 
ornamented  with  gold.  A  beautiful  color  harmony, 
shading  from  deep  black  to  palest  brown,  may  be  pro- 
duced on  soft  brown  leathers  by  burning.  Landscapes 
and  other  pictures  may  be  painted  on  leather.  This 
painting  is  usually  done  in  very  subdued  tones  which 
blend  with  the  brown  background.  The  crackled 
effect  usually  seen  in  old  pieces  of  painted  leather  is 
due  to  the  shrinking  of  the  skin. 

For  a  more  extended  description  of  leather  goods 
see  manual  on  "Leather  Goods  and  Gloves." 


Chapter  XIV 

METAL  GOODS 

Articles 

In  the  metal  goods  division  of  the  Stationery  Depart- 
ment are  included  desk  sets,  library  sets  composed  of 
shears,  paper  cutter,  etc.,  book  ends,  desk  clocks,  mantle 
ornaments,  and  paper  weights.     A  desk  set  usually 
consists  of  an  inkwell  and  pen  tray,  letter  opener  and 
paper  cutter,  calendar,  blotter,  stamp  box,  letter  rack, 
and  penwiper.    To  these  may  be  added  to  make  it  more 
complete,  a  paper  clip,  paper  weight,  scales,  and  desk 
clock.     Such  articles,  whether  simple  or  elaborate  m 
design  and  decoration,  are  all  more  or  less  ornamental, 
if  in  keeping  with  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made 
and  their  purposes.     During  each  season  many  novel- 
ties appear,  and  after  a  season  or  two  some  of  them 
are  generally  accepted  so  that  they  become  staple  stock. 

Metals 

Among  the  metals  used  for  useful  and  decorative 
purposes  are  brass,  bronze,  copper,  nickel,  gold,  silver, 

141 


it 


V 


142    PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

tin,  white  metal,  and  composition.  Of  these,  gold, 
silver,  copper,  nickel,  and  tin  are  native  or  found  pure 
in  nature.  The  rest  are  alloys  or  mixtures  of  two  or 
more  native  metals  caused  to  unite  permanently  by 
heat.  Mixing  the  precious  metals  (gold  and  silver) 
with  other  metals  not  only  makes  a  cheaper  metal,  but 
a  more  useful  and  durable  one.  Alloying  cheaper 
metals  also  increases  their  usefulness  and  adds  to  their 
artistic  effect.  (See  chapter  on  "Alloys"  in  manual 
on  *']eyNdTy  and  Silverware.") 

Each  metal  has  its  distinguishing  qualities  which 
make  it  valuable  in  the  industries  and  arts.  The  beauty 
and  durability  of  gold  and  silver  compensate  for  their 
costliness ;  while  the  color  and  hardness  of  nickel  and 
the  luster  and  toughness  of  copper  give  these  a  wide 
usefulness,  especially  in  various  combinations. 

Qualities 

Three  distinct  qualities  mark  all  metals  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree: 

1.  Malleability,  or  capability  of  being  beaten  or 

shaped. 

2.  Ductility,  or  capability  of  being  drawn  out  as 

for  wire. 

3.  Luster    or    metallic    brightness,    which    makes 

metals  so  valuable  for  decorative  purposes. 


METAL  GOODS 


143 


Gold 

Gold  is  found  free  and  also  in  connection  with  other 
minerals  such  as  silver,  mercury,  and  platinum.  It  is 
the  most  malleable  and  ductile  of  all  metals  and  is  not 
affected  by  the  air.  Gold  leaf,  which  is  used  for  deco- 
rative purposes,  is  beaten  out  to  ^50,000  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  Pure  gold  is  24  karats  fine,  but  gold  for 
commercial  purposes  is  from  10  to  18  karats  pure.  In 
the  Stationery  Department  gold  is  found  chiefly  as 
decoration,  but  fountain  pens  have  gold  points  and  are 
often  mounted  in  gold.  (For  further  information  on 
gold  see  the  manual  on  ''Jewelry  and  Silverware.") 

SUver 

Silver  occurs  free,  associated  with  native  gold,  or 
mixed  with  sulphur  or  lead.  It  is  the  most  common  of 
the  "  precious  metals."  It  is  very  soft,  though  harder 
than  gold,  and  so  is  often  alloyed  with  copper  to  give 
it  hardness.  It  is  malleable,  ductile,  and  unaffected  by 
pure  air,  but  tarnished  by  sulphur  compounds.  Ster- 
ling silver  is  921/2  per  cent  pure,  and  is  valuable  for  its 
durability  and  luster. 

Many  silver  articles  are  sold  in  the  Stationery  De- 
partment. Almost  any  of  the  fittings  for  a  desk  or 
library  table  may  be  made  of  it,  and  many  glass  sets 
are  mounted  in  silver. 

Sheffield  plate  consists  of  a  thin  sheet  of  pure  silver 


144   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 


plated  on  copper.  Real  Sheffield  silver  is  no  longer 
manufactured. 

Dutch  silver  is  distinguished  by  its  artistic  designs, 
which  are  usually  in  filigree  or  embossed  patterns. 

German  silver  is  a  combination  of  zinc,  copper,  and 
nickel,  copper  and  nickel  contributing  the  strength,  and 
zinc  and  nickel  the  desired  color  effect  in  imitation  of 
silver. 

For  further  information  upon  silver  see  the  manual 
on  "]ewt\Ty  and  Silverware." 

Other  Metals 

Copper  is  found  in  larger  and  more  widely  dis- 
tributed deposits  than  any  other  metal.  Like  gold  and 
silver  it  is  highly  malleable,  but  unlike  them  is  very 
tough.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  because  of  its 
rich  color  and  cheapness,  it  is  much  used  in  alloys. 

Zinc,  though  found  native,  is  more  often  found  in 
combination  with  other  metals  such  as  copper.  Its 
color  is  bluish-white,  which,  together  with  its  property 
of  being  only  slightly  altered  by  the  air,  makes  it  valu- 
able for  artificial  alloys. 

Mercury,  or  quick-silver,  is  an  almost  chemically  pure 
metal  coming  out  in  drops  from  the  ore  cinnabar.  It 
is  liquid  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  becoming  so  at 
40°  C. ;  it  boils  at  357°  C.  It  has  the  power  of  dis- 
solving other  metals,  forming  alloys  called  amalgams. 


METAL  GOODS 


145 


In  the  Stationery  Department  mercury  is  found  only 

in  thermometers. 

Nickel  is  a  hard  and  malleable  metal,  not  affected  by 
dry  air.     It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  coating  for  other  metals. 

Iron  is  the  most  useful  of  all  metals.  It  is  seldom 
found  free  as  it  oxidizes  quickly  when  exposed  to  the 
air  and  is  therefore  usually  found  in  oxides.  Red  and 
yellow  soils  often  owe  their  color  to  the  presence  of 
iron.  Wrought  iron  is  seen  in  the  Stationery  Depart- 
ment in  many  useful  and  ornamental  forms  for  desk 
and  library  sets,  candlesticks,  and  mantel  ornaments. 

Steel  is  a  hard  form  of  iron,  made  by  many  different 
processes.  All  cutlery  is  made  of  steel,  because  it  can 
be  tempered.  Library  shears  and  sometimes  paper- 
knives  are  the  forms  of  steel  found  in  the  Stationery 

Department. 

Aluminum  was  a  chemical  curiosity  until  twenty 
years  ago.  It  is  light,  soft,  malleable,  and  ductile  and 
takes  a  high  polish.  It  does  not  tarnish  nor  corrode 
and  is  useful  in  alloys.  Pen  trays  and  other  small 
articles  in  this  department  may  be  made  of  aluminum. 

Brass  is  an  alloy  of  zinc,  copper,  and  nickel,  m  which 
the  durability  and  color  of  copper  are  combined  with 
the  added  advantages  of  the  other  two  metals.  It  was 
probably  first  suggested  when  the  natural  alloys  of 
copper  and  zinc  were  melted  together. 

Bronze  is  an  alloy  of  zinc,  copper,  and  tin. 


':.    ■    t- 


jt' 


146  PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Brass  desk  furnishings  are  often  iron  plated  with 
brass.  Imitation  bronzes  are  made  in  two  ways.  They 
are  either  cast  iron  or  a  very  hard  composition  material 
painted  or  sprayed  with  a  liquid  "bronze"  paint. 

Color 

The  color  and  luster  of  metals  make  them  suitable 
for  decorative  purposes.  Their  alloys  may  combine 
the  characteristic  colors  and  lusters  of  several  metals, 
thus  producing  beautiful  shades  or  combinations  of 
color  such  as  the  greenish-yellow  of  brass  or  the  browns 
and  reds  of  bronze. 

Various  color  effects  on  the  same  metal  are  produced 
by  annealing  or  heating  the  article  while  in  the  process 
of  shaping  or  decorating  it. 

Paint,  enamel,  or  lacquer,  used  for  ornamenting 
metal,  must  be  applied  sparingly  and  wisely  if  it  is  to 
heighten  rather  than  lessen  its  artistic  effect. 

Design 

The  metal  goods  found  in  the  Stationery  Depart- 
ment are  designed  especially  for  the  writing  desk  or 
library,  and  care  should  be  taken  in  their  selection  so 
that  they  may  be  artistic  as  well  as  useful  and  also  that 
they  may  harmonize  with  the  other  room  furnishings. 

Library  furnishings  may  be  ornamental  but  should 
not  be  too  light  or  fragile  looking.     Brass,  bronze,  or 


I 


METAL  GOODS 


H7 


wrought  iron  are  more  appropriate  for  library  fittings 
than  silver  or  Dresden  china.  The  library  is  a  place 
for  comfort  and  restfulness,  and  people  do  not  like  to 
be  careful  lest  some  pretty  ornament  may  be  broken. 
Extreme  or  fanciful  designs  are  also  out  of  place  in  a 

library. 

A  man's  den  may  be  furnished  with  skulls  or  dancers 
or  other  pleasing  figures,  because  he  is  supposed  to 
indulge  there  any  wandering  fancy. 

A  lady's  desk  should  be  dainty  and  if  possible  its 
fittings  should  match  the  rest  of  the  room  in  which  it  is 
placed,  whether  French,  English,  colonial,  or  modern  m 

stvle. 

Office  furnishings  should  be  solid,  heavy,  and  plain, 

so  that  they  may  be  easily  kept  clean. 

Methods  of  Applying  Design 

The  shape  of  metal  goods  may  be  so  graceful  and 
artistic  that  they  need  no  ornamentation.  Designs  are 
applied  in  the  following  ways : 

1.  Embossing  —  raising  the  design  above  the  sur- 

face,   usually    from    the    back.     Sometimes 
called  repousse. 

2.  Stamping  —  marking  out  a  design  by  a  machine 

and  then  smoothing  and  polishing  it. 

3.  Engraving  —  applying  a  design  by  cutting  into 

the  article  by  means  of  a  graver. 


148   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

4.  Etching  —  cutting  a  design  by  means  of  an  acid. 

Filling  in  with  enamel  or  other  substances 
such  as  gold  or  bronze  gives  an  added  effect. 

5.  Beating  or  hammering  —  denting  the  surface 

of  the  article  by  means  of  a  dull  prong  and 
hammer.  This  produces  a  highly  artistic  and 
soft  reflection  of  light  or  metallic  luster.  It 
is  often  used  for  background  effects. 

6.  Inlaid  work  —  cutting  out  a  design  and  filling 

it  in  with  another  material. 
7-  Cut  or  pierced  work  —  cutting  out  a  design  with 
a  fret  saw  and  other  hand  tools.     Book  racks 
are  sometimes  seen  in  wood  covered  with 
pierced  brass. 

Other  Materials 

Other  materials  found  in  the  Stationery  Department 
and  usually  in  this  division  are  woods  (as  mahogany, 
oak,  and  ebony),  vulcanite  or  hard  rubber,  crystal  or 
glass,  celluloid,  alabaster,  onyx,  amber,  mother-of-pearl, 
and  ivory.  The  Swiss-carved  sets  are  notable  exam- 
ples of  beautiful  woods  used  for  library  purposes,  as 
is  also  the  Japanese  lacquer  wood. 

1.  Hard  rubber  is  the  result  of  extreme  vulcanization 
of  crude  rubber  and  is  a  durable  material  capable  of  a 
high  polish  and  varied  color  effects. 

2.  Celluloid  is  a  substance  made  of  gun  cotton,  cam- 


METAL  GOODS 


149 


phor,  and  other  ingredients,  imitating  ivory  or,  when 
colored,  tortoise  shell,  coral,  amber,  etc. 

3.  Alabaster  is  a  marble-like  mineral  of  two  varie- 
ties. The  gypseous  or  soft  is  of  various  colors  — 
yellow,  red,  gray,  but  most  valuable  when  pure  white 
and  soft  so  that  it  can  be  worked  into  vases,  statuettes, 
etc.  The  finest  quality  is  found  in  Florence,  Italy. 
Calcareous  or  Oriental  alabaster  is  the  other  variety. 

4.  Onyx  is  a  variety  of  quartz  closely  related  to 
agate.  It  is  characterized  by  a  structure  of  parallel 
bands  of  white  and  black,  brown  and  red,  differing  in 
color  and  degree  of  translucency.     It  is  used   for 

cameos,  etc. 

5.  Marble  is  limestone  in  a  more  or  less  crystalline 
condition.  It  is  white,  black,  gray,  bluish-gray,  and 
dove-colored,  less  frequently  red,  yellow,  green,  and 
blue.     The  vicinity  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  is  rich 

in  marble. 

6.  Enamel  is  a  glassy  substance,  white  or  colored, 
and  is  either  transparent  or  opaque.  It  is  applied  as  a 
coating  to  pottery  and  porcelain  of  many  kinds,  and 
also  for  decorative  designs  on  metals. 

7.  Ivory  is  the  material  constituting  the  tusks  of  the 
elephant,  walrus,  and  other  animals.  Vegetable  ivory 
is  the  nut-like  seed  of  a  South  American  palm.  It  is 
as  large  as  a  hen's  tgg  and  can  be  cut  and  carved  for 
various  purposes. 


I50   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

8.  Mother-of-pearl  is  the  inner  layer  of  the  shell  of 
various  animals  such  as  the  pearl  oyster.  It  is  hard, 
silvery,  iridescent  and  is  the  same  substance  as  a  pearl. 
It  is  found  in  Ceylon  and  the  Australian  Seas. 

9.  Amber  is  the  resin  of  extinct  pine  trees  found  in 
fair  abundance  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea  where 
it  is  thrown  up  by  the  waves.  It  is  hard,  translucent, 
brittle,  and  without  taste  or  smell  except  when  heated. 

More  complete  information  regarding  these  mate- 
rials and  the  metals  may  be  found  in  the  manual  on 
"Jewelry  and  Silverware." 


Chapter  XV 

NOVELTIES,  GIFTS,  AND  FAVORS 

Importance  of  Display 

The  sale  of  most  of  the  items  coming  under  the  list 
of  novelties  depends  to  a  very  large  degree  upon  their 
proper  display. 

Gifts  and  Favors 

Ability  and  willingness  to  assist  in  selecting  gifts  is 
welcomed  by  customers  in  this  department.  Dainty 
conceits  and  novelties  are  brought  out  so  frequently 
that  customers  cannot  know  the  stock  beforehand  and 
are  grateful  for  suggestions  as  to  what  is  suitable  and 
satisfactory  to  buy.  This  requires  both  a  sympathetic 
knowledge  of  the  customer  and  her  desires  and  a 
thorough  acquaintance  with  the  stock. 

The  selection  of  place  cards,  table  decorations,  and 
favors  requires  a  discriminating  and  cultivated  taste. 
They  should,  if  possible,  bear  a  relation  to  each  other, 
if  they  are  to  be  used  for  the  same  occasion. 

Slow  Stock 
Ability  to  push  merchandise  is  particularly  needed 

151 


i' 


152   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

in  a  department  so  full  of  novelties  and  perishable  stock 
and  so  dependent  in  its  sales  upon  having  a  constant 
supply  of  new  stock.  Attractive  appearance  and  sug- 
gestive display  as  well  as  suggestive  selling  will  aid 
in  accomplishing  this. 

Seasonal  Goods,  Calendars,  and  Cards 

The  Stationery  Department  is  a  popular  place  in  the 
holiday  season.  Calendars  alone  sometimes  seem  to 
require  a  department  of  their  own.  Although  they 
change  with  every  season,  calendars  may  be  grouped 
into  five  general  classes : 

1.  Practical  calendars,   as  engagement  calendars, 

with  little  or  no  decoration. 

2.  Literary  calendars,  with  quotations  and  senti- 

ments. 

3.  Art  calendars,  designed  for  decorative  use. 

4.  Odd  and  fanciful  calendars. 

5.  Permanent  or  adjustable  calendars. 

To  a  tired  and  distracted  customer  (and  nearly  all 
customers  ar6  tired  and  distracted  when  selecting 
Christmas  calendars),  some  such  classification  would 
be  very  helpful  and  save  much  fruitless  searching. 
Many  saleswomen  have  no  suggestions  to  furnish,  all 
calendars  being  just  calendars  to  them. 

Christmas  cards  will  be  sold  much  more  quickly  and 


NOVELTIES,  GIFTS,  AND  FAVORS  153 

with  less  damage  if  they  are  kept  in  groups  and  are 
not  allowed  to  become  jumbled  in  hopeless  confusion. 
For  all  anniversaries  and  special  occasions  there 
are  both  appropriate  and  inappropriate  cards.  Some 
of  those  offered  at  Easter  time  are  pecuharly  out  of 
place.  Here  is  an  excellent  opportunity  for  the  culti- 
vation of  a  refined  taste  and  a  sense  of  fitness. 

Playing  Cards 

Playing  cards  are  made  of  a  highly  glazed  or  super- 
calendered  cardboard.  Some  cards  have  been  made 
from  celluloid,  but  they  are  expensive,  the  designs  wear 
off  and  they  have  not  been  found  satisfactory. 

Besides  the  regulation  playing  card  deck  there  are 
also  bridge  sets,  500  packs,  pinocle  packs,  cribbage  sets, 
and  the  diminutive  sizes. 

Poker  chips  are  usually  made  of  either  mother-of - 
pearl,  ivory,  or  a  composition  material. 


II 


1 


•is 

1  n 


Chapter  XVI 

STATIONERY  SUPPLIES  AND 
MISCELLANEOUS 

Importance  of  These  Small  Articles 

Miscellaneous  items  are  the  magnets  of  the  stationery 
trade.  Always,  if  properly  displayed,  they  draw  cus- 
tomers to  a  store  and  give  greater  opportunity  to  sell 
staple  goods. 

Great  improvements  have  been  made  in  such  items 
as  sanitary  moisteners,  letter  openers,  and  other  special- 
ties. In  fact,  the  improvements  made  in  this  class  of 
goods  are  so  many  and  so  great  that  one  has  to  be  con- 
stantly on  the  alert  so  as  not  to  be  overstocked  with 
unsalable  goods. 

Lead  Pencils 

The  term  "  lead  pencil  "  does  not  accurately  describe 
a  pencil.  The  *'  lead  "  is  graphite,  a  mineral  mined 
in  many  parts  of  the  world.  In  preparing  it  for  use 
in  pencils  it  is  first  reduced  to  a  pure,  fine  powder,  and 
then  clay  of  a  very  fine  quality  is  added  to  bind  it 
together.    The  greater  the  proportion  of  clay,   the 

154 


STATIONERY  SUPPLIES 


155 


harder  the  pencil.  The  proportions  are  very  exactly 
worked  out.  Some  lines  are  made  in  15  degrees  of 
hardness;  for  example,  in  one  well-known  make  a 
No  I  pencil  which  is  very  soft,  has  50  parts  amlme, 
37  5  graphite,  and  12.5  clay ;  while  the  very  hard  No.  4 
has  25  parts  aniline,  25  graphite,  and  50  clay. 

The  mixture  of  graphite,  clay,  and  water  is  placed 
in  heavy  steel  cylinders  and  forced  through  a  die  which 
forms  the  slender  sticks  for  filling  the  pencils.  After 
the  sticks  have  been  straightened  and  cut  to  pencil 
length,  they  are  heated  and  tempered.  They  are  then 
ready  for  the  wooden  cases.     (See  Frontispiece.) 

Wood  Used 

The  wood  used  for  good  pencils  is  southern  red 
cedar,  because  it  has  an  even  grain  which  whittles  well. 
The  seasoned  wood  is  first  cut  into  slats  about  the 
len^h  of  a  pencil.  The  slat  is  then  planed  and  grooved 
for  the  lead,  the  lead  laid  in  the  grooves,  and  another 
slat  coated  with  glue  fitted  over  it.  When  ^^ed  they 
are  cut  apart,  sandpapered,  and  varmshed  At  this 
stage  the  pencils  are  really  finished  and  ready  for  use. 

Finishing 

Some  finishing  touches  are  usually  given,  however 
such  as  stamping  with  the  manufacturer's  name  and 
tipping  with  metal  tip  and  rubber.     In  the  better  pencils 


156   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

the  lettering  is  stamped  on  in  gold  or  silver  leaf  with 
hot  steel  dies.  The  metal  tips  are  seamless,  being 
shaped  from  sheet  brass  or  bronze.  The  pieces  from 
which  the  tips  are  made  are  drawn  or  stretched  and 
fitted  onto  the  pencil. 

Special  Kinds  of  Pencils 

There  are  hundreds  of  styles  of  pencils,  such  as 
dainty  program  pencils  for  tally  and  dance  cards; 
broad,  flat  carpenter's  pencils;  skin-marking  pencils 
for  surgeons ;  and  refillable  pencils  with  separate  leads. 

Indelible  pencils  are  made  of  8  parts  clay,  2  parts 
manganese  dioxide,  finely  powdered,  and  3  parts  silver 
nitrate,  mixed  and  kneaded  with  5  parts  distilled  water. 

Colored  pencils  are  made  by  adding  the  different 
coloring  matters  to  a  base  of  starch,  sugar,  or  wax. 

Pens  —  History 

The  first  metallic  pen  was  made  in  1780.  This  is  a 
comparatively  recent  date  when  the  long  ages  during 
which  men  have  been  writing  are  considered.  The 
quill  pen  was  the  immediate  forerunner  of  the  metallic 
pen,  being  used  as  late  as  1865  ^"^  holding  sway  for 
generations,  even  centuries.  They  were  made  from  the 
feathers  of  geese,  swans,  and  crows.  A  reed  pen  was 
used  before  the  quill. 

James  Perry,  in  1824,  started  the  manufacture  of 


STATIONERY  SUPPLIES 


157 


pens  on  a  large  scale  in  England  and  was  the  first  to 
manufacture  separate  pen  points,  as  up  to  this  time  the 
pen  and  holder  were  in  one  piece. 

Process  of  Manufacturing  Pens 

The  first  step  in  manufacturing  the  pen  is  to  cut  the 
sheets  of  steel,  which  come  in  very  large  sizes,  into 
strips  about  19  inches  long  and  wide  enough  to  cut  two 


j^  VB      VC     TD 

Figure  11.     Steel  Pen  in  Different  Stages  of  Manufacture 

pens  with  points  interlapping.  These  strips  are  heated 
gradually,  cooled,  and  then  flattened  in  a  rolling  mill  to 
.009  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  imperfect,  cheap 
pens  have  little  rolling.  The  pens  are  cut  out  of  these 
strips  by  presses,  and  one  operator  can  cut  40,000  to 
45,000  in  a  day.     There  are  about  200  styles. 

The  flexibility  of  the  pen  is  determined  by  the  pierc- 
ing and  side  cutting.  In  this  part  of  the  process  the 
so-called  "  blanks  *'  are  heated  again  and  while  soft 


J 


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158   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

are  marked  and  shaped  by  a  screw  press.  They  are 
then  hardened  or  tempered  by  dropping  into  cold  oil 
many  times.  They  are  dried  in  sawdust,  which  makes 
the  pens  brittle.  Resiliency,  by  which  is  meant  the 
property  of  being  stiff  and  at  the  same  time  elastic,  is 
obtained  by  gradually  reheating  until  this  desired  prop- 
erty is  the  result.  A  coating  of  oxide,  left  on  the  pen, 
is  removed  by  scouring  in  revolving  barrels.  The  pens 
are  ground  on  emery  "  bobs  "  to  make  them  hold  the 
ink  better.  The  slit  is  put  in  by  a  delicate  machine 
and  the  point  ground  smooth.  If  they  are  to  be  left 
gray,  they  are  polished,  or  they  may  be  bronzed,  blued, 
or  blacked  by  heat.  In  these  cases  they  are  quickly 
chilled  to  prevent  change  in  color.  They  may  be 
lacquered  to  prevent  rust,  or  plated  with  bronze,  silver, 
or  gold.     (See  Figure  11.) 

The  pens  are  counted  by  weight,  arranged  in  parallel 
lines  in  boxes  by  shaking  in  a  cylinder;  then  they  are 
labeled  and  packed.  During  its  process  of  manufac- 
ture a  pen  has  from  20  to  28  handlings. 

Other  Metals  Used  for  Pens 

Other  metals  such  as  silver,  zinc,  German  silver, 
aluminum,  and  bronze,  have  been  tried  for  pens,  but 
steel  has  the  most  desirable  qualities.  It  has  one  great 
disadvantage,  however,  it  rusts. 

Gold  does  not  corrode  or  oxidize.     The  gold  used  in 


STATIONERY  SUPPLIES 


159 


gold  pen  points  is  an  alloy  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
14  karats  being  the  standard  for  fountain  pen  pomts. 
Gold  pens  are  usually  tipped  with  iridium  to  protect 
the  point.  Iridium  is  the  hardest  metal  known,  bemg 
second  to  the  diamond,  and  three  times  as  hard  as  the 
ruby.  Before  the  discovery  of  iridium,  diamonds  or 
rubies  were  used  for  this  purpose.  The  placing  of  the 
tiny  ball  of  iridium  on  the  gold  pen  point  is  a  very 
delicate  operation. 

Fountain  Pens  * 

The  component  parts  of  the  fountain  pen  are,  the 
cap,  which  fits  over  the  pen  protecting  it;  the  barrel, 
which  holds  the  ink ;  the  point  section,  which  holds  the 
pen  and  screws  into  the  barrel ;  the  "  spoon  feed,"  which 
provides  the  pen  with  a  steady  flow  of  ink;  and  the  pen 
point. 

Materials 

The  material  from  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
fountain  pen  is  made  is  hard  rubber.  Crude  rub- 
ber is  the  juice  of  a  South  American  tree.  The 
trees  are  tapped  and  the  juice  which  flows  is  collected, 
washed,  ground,  and  then  dried  for  several  months. 
It  is  finally  vulcanized,  which  is  a  process  of  mixmg 
sulphur  and  white  lead  with  crude  rubber  and  heatmg 
it  to  300°  F.  for  about  fourteen  hours.     The  greater 


I 


ill. 


l6o   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

the  amount  of  sulphur  and  the  higher  the  temperature, 
the  harder  and  more  resistant  will  the  rubber  be.  The 
rubber  must  be  hard  enough  not  to  be  bent  out  of  shape 
and  yet  have  enough  resiliency  so  that  the  joints  will  be 
ink-tight. 

After  molding,  each  part  of  the  pen  is  turned  by 
hand  on  machinery.  The  parts  are  polished  by  wheels, 
ashes,  and  pumice  stone  to  remove  tool  marks,  and  are 
then  tested  for  leakage. 

The  pen  point  itself  is  made  of  gold,  protected  by 
iridium. 

Set  of  Fountain  Pens 

Every  shape  or  grade  of  pen  point  requires  a  dif- 
ferent set,  so  that  it  will  feed  freely  and  evenly.     For 


•MMCT 


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'^^^^'ttte^KtmrMt'Kn 


Courtesy  of  L.  E.  Waterman  Co. 
Figure  12.    Cross  Section  of  a  Fountain  Pen 

example,  a  stub  must  have  less  resiliency  than  a  fine 
point  so  that  it  will  feed  ink  more  freely. 

The  desired  set  is  accomplished  by  hand  and  by  feel- 
ing rather  than  sight.     (See  Figure  12.) 

Ornamentation 
The  barrels  and  caps  of  the  ordinary   fountain 


STATIONERY  SUPPLIES 


161 


pen  are  either  plain  or  chased.  Chasing  is  done  m  the 
molding  process.  The  design  having  been  ait  m  the 
mold,  leaves  its  impression  on  the  rubber.  The  more 
expensive  pens  are  often  ornamented  with  silver  or 
gold  or  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl. 

Forms  of  Foimtain  Pens 

The  stylographic  pen  is  a  variety  of  fountam  pen  m 

which  a  needle  at  the  end  of  the  pen  serves  as  a  valve 

to  release  the  ink  when  the  point  is  pressed  on  the  paper. 

Non-leakable  or  safety  fountain  pens  are  of  two 

varieties.     In  one  type  the  pen  is  drawn  down  mto  the 

barrel  and  the  cap,  having  an  inside  plate,  fits  securely 

over  the  open  top.     The  other  type  has  a  rigid  pen 

point,  but  the  cap  screws  down  upon  the  barrel  so 

tightly  that  no  ink  can  escape. 

Self-filling  pens  are  those  in  which  the  pen  is  placed 
point  down  in  the  ink  bottle  and  the  ink  is  drawn  up 
into  the  barrel  without  the  use  of  a  filler.  The  prin- 
ciple of  the  action  is  the  same  as  when  a  filler  is  used. 
A  slight  pressure  on  the  soft  rubber  ink  holder  ms.de 
the  barrel  expels  the  air,  and  when  the  pressure  is 
released  the  ink  draws  up  into  the  empty  holder. 

^"ink  may  be  either  a  solution  of  any  colored  dye  stuff, 
or  as  in  the  case  of  common  black  ink,  a  finely  divided 
insoluble  substance  mixed  with  water.     A  permanent 


II 


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1 62   ^APER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

and  penetrating  ink  is  made  from  gall  nuts  and  sul- 
phate of  iron,  with  perhaps  the  addition  of  aniline 
black. 

The  chief  materials  used  for  making  inks  are  gall 
nuts,  green  vitriol,  and  gum,  in  varied  proportions. 
The  gall  nuts  are  crushed  to  a  powder  and  boiled,  and 
the  gum  and  green  vitriol  added.  In  cheaper  inks  log- 
wood, a  dark  dye  made  from  the  wood  of  the  logwood 
tree,  may  be  used  instead  of  gall  nuts,  but  logwood  inks 
tend  to  produce  black  flakes  upon  exposure  to  air. 

Requirements  of  a  Good  Ink 

A  good  black  ink  must  flow  readily  from  the  pen  and 
yield  at  once  or  in  a  short  time  a  deep  black,  per- 
manent color.  It  must  not  corrode  metallic  pens,  nor 
destroy  the  paper.  It  should  not  have  sediment  if  kept 
in  air-tight  bottles,  nor  yield  to  water  or  absolute 
alcohol.  It  is  of  interest  to  know  that  the  State  of 
Massachusetts  has  an  official  ink.  Up  to  1850  most 
inks  were  good,  but  carelessness  in  the  choice  of  ink 
resulted  in  illegible  state  records.  After  this  the  inks 
employed  had  to  stand  a  test  of  the  action  of  the  sun's 
rays,  wind,  rain,  and  frost  for  six  months  on  paper 
soaked  with  water  and  alcohol. 

Special  Kinds  of  Inks 

Aniline  inks  are  made  of  aniline  dissolved  in  strong 
alcohol  diluted  with  distilled  water  and  mixed  with  a 


STATIONERY  SUPPLIES 


163 


solution  of  powdered  gum  arabic.  Aniline  black  inks 
are  cheap  and  not  permanent. 

Arnold's  writing  fluid  is  a  mixture  of  sulphate  of 
indigo  and  ordinary  ink.  It  flows  freely  from  the  pen, 
becoming  permanently  very  black. 

Blue  black  inks  are  made  of  galls  and  iron,  with  blue 
coloring  matter  (Prussian  blue,  indigo  or  an  aniline 

blue)  added. 

Colored  inks  (red,  blue,  violet,  and  green)  are  in 
most  cases  solutions  of  dyestuffs,  and  very  few  are 
permanent.  Red  ink  is  a  solution  of  brazilwood, 
cochineal,  magenta,  or  eosine. 

Fountain  pen  ink  consists  of  tannic  acid,  gallic  acid, 
and  water.     Ordinary  writing  fluid  is  not  clean  enough 

and  clogs  the  pen. 

India  ink  is  colored  by  finely  divided  carbon,  which 
is  unaffected  by  chemical  reagents,  and  is  therefore  per- 
manent.    It  is  high  priced  and  is  used  for  drawing. 

Indelible  ink  is  usually  made  from  a  salt  of  silver. 
It  is  used  for  marking  clothing  which  is  to  be  laundered. 

Ink  eradicators  are  made  of  hydrochloric  or  oxalic 
acid  and  javelle  water.  When  used  upon  goods,  the 
cloth  should  be  rinsed  quickly  and  thoroughly. 

Ink  erasers  are  made  of  rubber  mixed  with  ground 

glass. 

Glue 

This  is  made  chiefly  from  gelatin  obtained  from 


II 
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II 


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it 


164   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

cuttings  of  hides,  skins,  tendons,  and  other  refuse  parts 
of  animals.  These  are  first  soaked  in  Hme,  washed,  and 
then  boiled.  The  liquid  is  run  off  and  clarified  with 
powdered  alum.  Before  cooling,  it  is  drawn  off  in 
molds.  Good  glue  should  be  light  brown  in  color  and 
semitransparent.  It  loses  its  strength  by  frequent 
remelting. 

Mucilage 

The  best  quality  of  mucilage  is  made  by  dissolving 
clear  glue  in  equal  volumes  of  water  and  strong  vinegar, 
one-fourth  of  an  equal  volume  of  alcohol,  and  a  little 
alum.  The  vinegar  prevents  the  glue  from  gelatiniz- 
ing as  it  cools.  Some  of  the  preparations  are  merely 
boiled  starch  or  flour,  with  nitric  acid  to  prevent 
gelatinizing.  Stick  mucilage  is  made  of  gum  arabic 
water,  clove  oil,  and  powdered  gum  dextrin  to  thicken. 

Paste 

Office  paste  is  usually  a  mixture  of  soluble  starch  and 
glue,  with  a  little  alum  and  oil  of  cloves  for  a  preserva- 
tive. 

Sealing  Wax 

The  various  qualities  of  sealing  wax  range  between 
extra  superfine  and  common.  In  the  best  qualities  the 
chief  ingredient  is  pale  shellac  mixed  with  turpentine, 
resin,  and  a  coloring  matter;  in  the  cheaper  grades 
resin  is  used  in  place  of  shellac.     Red  waxes  are  colored 


STATIONERY  SUPPLIES 


165 


with  vermilion  or  red  lead,  black  with  lampblack,  and 
brown  with  iron  ochres,  a  brownish  mineral.  Too 
much  coloring  matter  makes  it  less  adhesive. 

A  good  sealing  wax  is  glossy  and  breaks  with  an  even 
fracture,  showing  no  holes  or  stripes.  If  too  brittle 
it  shows  too  much  resin  in  the  mixture.  It  should  not 
run  in  thin  drops  but  should  soften  on  being  heated 
and  should  not  harden  too  rapidly.  It  should  take  a 
clean,  sharp  impression. 

Rulers 

Rulers  come  in  either  12  or  15  inch  lengths,  and  may 
be  marked  in  inches  only,  or  in  inches  on  one  side  and 
millimeters  on  the  other.  The  better  rulers  are  edged 
with  a  brass  plate  to  preserve  a  sharp  ruling  edge  more 
permanent  than  the  softer  wooden  edge.  A  15  inch 
ruler  is  a  valuable  aid  in  the  department  for  use  m 
measuring  paper  etc. 

Erasers 

Rubber  erasers  are  made  by  mixing  washed  crude 
rubber,  sulphur,  and  other  materials,  and  vulcanizing 
the  mixture  in  molds.  The  various  pigments  used  to 
color  rubber  goods  are  added  to  the  mixture  to  give  the 
desired  color  (carbon  for  black,  vermilion  for  red,  and 
sulphite  of  cadmium  for  yellow). 

Ink  erasers  differ  from  the  pencil  in  having  more 
grit  (such  as  ground  glass)  added  to  the  mixture. 


i 


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1 -« 


1 66  PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Rubber  Bands 

There  are  two  kinds  of  rubber  bands  —  those  which 
are  a  complete  circle  of  rubber,  sHced  from  the  end  of 
a  rubber  tubing,  and  those  made  from  rubber  thread 
with  the  ends  cemented  together.  Both  kinds  are  made 
from  a  vulcanized  rubber  mixture. 

Rubber  tubing  is  formed  by  vulcanizing  the  mixture 
over  a  cylinder  or  mandrel  of  the  desired  size.  Finely 
adjusted  machinery  cuts  the  bands  according  to  the 
desired  width.  This  process  produces  a  very  strong 
band. 

Rubber  thread  is  washed  rubber  mixed  with  sulphur 
and  naphtha,  then  pressed  on  cloth  by  rollers.  French 
chalk  is  dusted  on  the  rubber  to  prevent  adhesion.  It 
is  then  taken  from  the  cloth,  wound  around  a  cloth- 
covered  cylinder,  and  vulcanized;  it  is  then  removed 
from  the  cylinder,  pasted  over  with  shellac,  and  wound 
around  a  roller  and  dried.  While  still  on  the  roller  the 
threads  are  cut  the  required  width  by  a  rapidly  revolv- 
ing circular  knife  which  is  kept  very  wet  to  prevent 
sticking.  Rubber  goods  should  not  be  kept  in  stock 
too  long  as  they  deteriorate  rapidly. 

Seals 

Seals  are  metal  dies  with  the  crest,  monogram,  or 
initial  of  the  owner  incised  upon  them.  They  are  used 
for  "  sealing  "  letters  by  stamping  this  impression  on 


i 


STATIONERY  SUPPLIES 


167 


hot  sealing  wax  dropped  on  the  edge  of  the  envelope 

flap.  . 

The  seal  is  of  very  ancient  origin  and  was  used  m 
many  ways  to  protect  property  or  documents.  All  im- 
portant legal  papers  have  seals  attached  to  represent  the 
proper  authority. 

Labels 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  great  increase  in  the 
numbers  and  varieties  of  tags,  stickers,  and  labels. 
They  are  made  for  almost  every  conceivable  use,  for 
mailing  purposes,  for  marking  household  goods,  such  as 
jars,  bottles,  boxes,  books,  etc.  The  fancy  Imes  of 
these  goods  have  come  to  occupy  a  prominent  place  m 
the  holiday  displays  and  it  may  sometimes  require  the 
time  of  one  salesperson  to  handle  the  goods. 

Paper  Sets 

Paper  sets,  including  napkins,  tablecloths,  and  doilies, 
are  also  made  in  a  great  variety  of  pretty  designs. 

Twines  and  Cords 

The  twines  and  cords  sold  in  the  Stationery  Depart- 
ment are  usually  the  lighter  cords.  They  are  made  of 
cotton,  hemp,  jute,  flax,  and  other  textile  fibers.  They 
are  from  three  to  twelve  ply,  and  run  m  sizes  from  12 
(fine)  to  48  (coarse).  The  strength  of  the  cord 
depends  upon  the  material  used  and  the  twist. 


TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 


169 


Chapter  XVII 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND 

CUSTOMERS 

For  Correspondence  Papers 

The  attention  of  customers  who  wish  a  good  corre- 
spondence paper  may  be  called  to  the  fact  that  ink  does 
not  spread  so  easily  on  linen  paper,  which  has  a  harder 
surface  and  so  is  less  inclined  to  blot. 

Customers  who  object  to  the  high  cost  of  delicately 
tinted  papers  should  know  that  this  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  more  difficult  to  prepare. 

A  salesperson  should  call  attention  to  the  effect  of 
artificial  light  on  colors  and,  if  necessary,  have  the 
paper  carried  to  daylight  for  inspection. 

Customers  who  desire  a  fine  grade  of  stationery  will 
be  interested  in  knowing  that  loft-dried  or  pole-dried 
paper  is  dried  by  the  air  alone  without  the  aid  of 
artificial  heat  and  that  this  makes  it  stronger  and  more 
elastic. 

As  paper  by  the  pound  is  less  expensive  than  that 
sold  in  boxes  containing  only  a  quire,  many  people  will 
find  it  to  their  advantage  to  purchase  their  stationery 
in  this  way  and  will  appreciate  the  suggestion  that  they 
do  so. 

168 


The  sample  books  commonly  used  in  the  Stationery 
Department  are: 

Correspondence  writing  papers. 

Mourning  writing  papers. 

White    visiting    and   business    cards,    and    card 

envelopes. 
Mourning  visiting  and  mourning  card  envelopes. 
Dinner,  menu,  and  escort  cards. 
Sympathy  acknowledgment  cards. 
Birth  announcements,  party  invitations,  congratu- 

lations,  and  removal  cards. 

Paper  should  always  be  shown  from  the  sample  book 
which  must  be  carefully  kept.  The  cover  should  be 
blackened  when  it  becomes  gray  and  the  paper  cleaned 
with  sponge  rubber.  The  salesperson  should  always 
turn  the  leaves  herself.  This  is  not  only  a  mark  of 
courtesy,  but  prevents  the  book  from  becoming  soiled 
and  damaged.  The  book  should  not  be  bent,  as  the 
samples  will  come  off.  In  replacing  samples  they 
should  be  pasted  on  neatly,  using  not  too  much  glue. 

Paper  should  be  a  little  smaller  than  the  envelopes 
with  which  it  is  matched.  If  the  exact  size  is  not  at 
hand,  the  envelope  chosen  should  be  a  little  too  large 
rather  than  too  small. 

The  material  used  for  black  borders  on  stationery 
will  rub,  so  paper  or  envelopes  which  are  black-bordered 
should  be  carefully  wrapped. 


170   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 


In  buying  blotting  paper  for  desk  pads,  it  is  better 
to  buy  more  than  one  sheet,  as  it  is  easier  to  send  it. 

Letters  for  foreign  countries  are  usually  written  on 
thin  paper  to  lessen  the  cost  of  postage.  When  selling 
thin  paper  it  is  well  to  suggest  envelopes  having  a 
lining  which  prevents  the  writing  from  showing. 

For  Engraving 

In  accepting  orders  for  additional  engraving  on  old 
plates,  there  are  two  things  to  be  remembered : 

1.  The  salesperson  should  not  guarantee  new  work 

to  match  the  old,  because  no  two  engravers 
produce  exactly  the  same  work. 

2.  The  salesperson  should  be  sure  that  the  metal  is 

large  enough  to  receive  additional  engraving. 

Failure  to  mention  these  two  dangers  often  results 
in  a  dissatisfied  customer. 

When  an  order  for  wedding  invitations  and  an- 
nouncements is  received,  the  salesperson  may  profitably 
suggest  other  stationery  needs  for  the  occasion,  such  as 
new  visiting  cards,  monogram  and  addressed  stationery 
for  the  bride,  menus,  place  cards,  and  decorations  for 
the  luncheon  or  breakfast,  cake  boxes,  etc. 

A  book  of  etiquette  or  correct  social  usage  is  a  neces- 
sary possession  of  the  Stationery  Department. 

For  Novelties  and  Supplies 

Leather  goods  should  be  displayed  attractively  in 


TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS         171 

handsome  show  cases,  and  the  salesperson  must  see  that 
the  articles  are  kept  clean  and  rearranged  occasionally. 
The  stock  should  be  carefully  watched  so  as  to  avoid 
being  out  of  staple  numbers. 

Book  racks  are  not  ordinarily  included  in  desk  or 
writing  sets,  and  it  is  well  to  suggest  to  a  customer  who 
has  purchased  a  set  that  a  book  rack  would  be  a  fitting 
accompaniment. 

The  salesperson  may  not  always  have  the  stock  to 
carry  out  ideals  of  "  fitness  "  in  matching  favors,  table 
or  other  decorations  and  the  customer  may  have 
decided  ideas  of  her  own,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  appro- 
priate thing  is  of  the  greatest  value  in  making  satis- 
fied customers. 

Often  customers  can  be  interested  in  favors  and 
invitations  by  showing  them  the  sample  book  while  they 
are  waiting  for  packages  or  change. 

It  is  well  to  ask  a  customer  what  is  the  prevailing 
color  in  her  dining  room  and  what  flowers  she  intends 
to  use.  This  information  will  suggest  appropriate 
colors  and  designs  in  cards  and  may  sometimes  give 
opportunity  for  originality  in  the  plan  of  decoration. 

The  salesperson  should  be  familiar  with  the  general 
requirements  of  the  various  games,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
advise  customers.  It  is  wise  to  have  on  hand  a  book 
of  instructions,  such  as  Hoyle,  to  which  to  refer  cus- 


172   PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 


*l 


tomers  who  may  ask  about  the  technicalities  of  certain 
games. 

The  tassels  of  tally  cards  are  very  easily  tangled  and 
care  should  be  exercised  in  taking  them  from  and 
returning  to  the  boxes. 

The  salesperson  should  be  familiar  with  the  general 
character  of  the  other  games  kept  in  the  department, 
and  be  able  to  advise  as  to  those  which  are  suitable 
for  children,  etc.  This  information  can  be  obtained 
from  the  rules  in  the  boxes. 

Selling  points  on  pencils  are  the  uniformity  and 
toughness  of  lead  and  the  even  grain  of  the  wood,  which 
make  it  possible  to  sharpen  a  pencil  easily  and  neatly. 

A  thorough  understanding  of  the  action  of  a  foun- 
tain pen  is  necessary  for  expert  salesmanship. 

It  is  always  a  good  plan  to  tie  the  brush  to  the 
mucilage  bottle  to  insure  no  omission. 

Sealing  wax  is  easily  broken  and  so  should  be  care- 
fully handled  and  wrapped  in  plenty  of  tissue  paper 
before  sending  to  customers. 

Novelties  make  up  a  large  part  of  the  stock  of 
a  modern  Stationery  Department.  Because  of  their 
seasonal  character  the  salesperson  has  an  opportunity 
for  suggestive  selling  and  may  assist  customers  in  mak- 
ing wise  selections. 


Chapter  XVIII 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  OF  STATION- 
ERY DEPARTMENT 

Divisions 

A.  Paper 

B.  Engraving 

C.  Leather  Goods 

D.  Metal  Goods 

E.  Novelties,  Gifts,  and  Favors 

F.  Stationery  Supplies  and  Miscellaneous 

A  —  Paper 

/.  Correspondence  Paper 

1.  Forms 

Box  Paper  and  Cards 

Pound  Paper  and  Separate  Envelopes 

2.  Materials 

Linen 

Mixed  Rags 
Wood  Pulp 

3.  Sizes 

Letter 
Note 
Small  Note 

173 


174  PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

4.  Finish 

Rough  (Vellum,  Antique) 
Smooth  ( Supercalendered,  Plate) 
Novelty  or  Fabric  (Linen,  Madras,  etc.) 

5.  Color 

White 

Gray 

Blue 

Lavender 

Buff 

Brown 

Green 

Purple 

Two-Toned 

Black-Bordered 

Checked  and  Other  Novelties 

Combinations 
White  with  Colored  Linings 
White  with  Colored  Borders 

//.  Commercial 

1.  Stationery 

Letterheads  and  Envelopes 

Legal  Cap 

Foolscap 

2.  Typewriting  Supplies 

Paper 

Carbon,  etc. 
Tissue 

3.  Pads  and  Note  Books 

4.  Ledgers  and  Loose-Leaf  Devices 

5.  Filing  Envelopes,  Cabinets,  Indexes 

6.  School  Supplies 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  1 75 

B  —  Engraving 

1.  Kinds  (or  Methods) 

Plate  Printing  (Engraving) 
Type  Printing 

2.  Styles 

(a)  Types 

Script 

Old  English 

Roman 

Caxton  (Plain  and  Shaded) 

French  (Plain  and  Shaded) 

Spanish  (Plain  and  Shaded) 

(b)  Monograms,  Crests,  Coats  of  Arms,  Ad- 

dresses 

3.  Articles 

Letterheads 

Cards,  Invitations,  Announcements 

C  —  Leather  Goods 

1.  Articles 

(a)  Books 

Memorandum  Books  and  Diaries 
Guest  Books,  Albtmis,  and  Address 

Books 
Receipt  and  Cash  Books 
Dance  Lists,  Laundry  Lists,  etc. 

(b)  Desk  Sets 

(c)  Pads  (Writing,  Desk,  Score,  etc.) 

(d)  Lists  (Telephone,  Calling,  Laundry) 

(e)  Boxes  (Stamps,  Sewing) 

(f)  Clock  Cases 

(g)  Book  Covers 

2.  Material  and  Finish 

Russia,  Morocco,  Levant 


176  PAPER  AND  STATIONERY  DEPARTMENTS 

Calf,  Pig,  Sole 
Alligator,  Walrus,  Seal 
Chamois,  Vellum 
Imitation  Leathers 

D  —  Metal  Goods 

1.  Articles 

Sets  (Desk,  Library) 
Book  Ends 
Clocks 
Ornaments 

2.  Materials 

(a)  Metals 

Silver 

Copper 

Tin 

Brass,  Bronze 

Nickel 

Composition 

(b)  Woods  (Mahogany,  Ebony,  Oak) 

(c)  Hard  Rubber 

(d)  Glass 

(e)  Onyx,  Ivory,  Celluloid,  Mother-of-Pearl, 

Amber 

E  —  Novelties,  Gifts,  and  Favors 

1.  Favors 

2.  Seasonal  Goods 

Cards 
Calendars 

3.  Playing  Cards  and  Other  Games 

Score  Pads 
Tallies 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


177 


Stationery  Supplies  and  Miscellaneous 
Pencils 

Pens  and  Penholders 
Fountain  Pens 
Ink 
Glue 
Mucilage 
Paste 

Sealing  Wax 
Rulers 
Erasers 
Rubber  Bands 
Seals 
Labels 
Paper  Sets 
Twines  and  Cords 
Handy  Boxes 


Appendix 

Classification  of  Paper  and  Paper  Products^ 

Manufacturers  report  their  production  of  paper  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  accordance  with  the  following  classification : 

Total  Newsprint  includes  all  Standard  News  and  special 
grades  of  newsprint  but  excludes  hanging  paper,  which  is 
shown  separately. 

Standard  News  is  the  principal  subdivision  of  Total  News- 
print, being  32-pound  paper  used  for  printing  newspapers. 

Book  includes  all  periodical  paper  and  miscellaneous  grades 
of  machine  finished,  supercalendered,  coated,  etc 

Total  Paperboard  includes  all  grades  of  board,  such  as  box, 
straw,  chip,  tag,  press,  fiber,  binder,  leather,  etc. 

Boxhoard,  the  principal  subdivision  of  Total  Paperboard, 
is  shown  separately  beginning  with  March,  1920.  Figures  for 
Boxboard  prior  to  March,  1920,  were  included  under  Paper- 
board. 

Wrapping  includes  kraft,  manila,  fiber,  and  miscellaneous 
grades  such  as  glassine,  grease  proof,  etc.,  but  excludes  bag 
paper,  which  is  shown  separately. 

Bag  includes  paper  made  into  flexible  commercial  con- 
tainers such  as  grocery  bags,  flour  sacks,  etc. 

Fine  includes  writings,  bonds,  ledgers,  etc. 
Tissue  includes  toilet,  crepe,  fruit  wrappers,  etc. 
Hanging  includes  paper  ultimately  intended  to  be  used  for 

*  From  Report  of  Federal  Trade  Commission,  February,   1921. 

178 


APPENDIX 


179 


purposes  of  interior  decoration,  such  as  No.  2  hanging, 
oatmeal,  tile  paper,  etc. 

Felt  and  Building  includes  roofing,  felt,  sheathmg,  and 
other  grades  of  building  paper. 

Other  Grades  includes  a  great  variety  of  specialties  that  do 
not  classify  under  any  of  the  above  captions. 


i8o 


APPENDIX 


Imports  and  Exports  of  all  Grades  of  Paper  (Pounds  and 

(Net  Tons),  191 7  to 


PAPER 

1920 

1919 

Pounds 

Value 

Pounds 

Value 

Imports: 
Newsprint 
Book  Paper 
Wrapping 
Hanging 
All  other  grades 
(b) 

1,459,737.288 
4,340,425 
4.941,824 

$68,600,950 
496,132 
460,289 
353,791 

2,741.238 

1.255,462,866 

164,886 

4,802,487 

$43,674,094 

58,319 

406,570 

104,326 

1. 638.7 1 1 

Exports: 
Newsprint 
Book  Paper 
Paper  board 
Wrapping 
Bag 

91.951,913 
95,689,512 

5,983.611 
13,765,694 
5,553,094 
6,994,381 
2,593.459 
8,90«.230 

2,654,529 
1,251,743 

11,091,952 

220,589,829 
153.327,185 

10,100,229 

16,160,777 

4,604,048 

6,664,462 

1,566,373 

13,188,165 

2,237,570 

899,457 

8,799.550 

61.264.501 

74,916,830 

Tissue 
Hanging 
All  other  grades 
(b) 

Total  Imports 
Total  Exports 

72,652,400 
58,796.693 

45,882,030 
64,220,631 

PULP 


1920 

1919 

1918 

1917 

Imports 

Net  Tons 

Net  Tons 

Net  Tons 

Net  Tons 

Chemical  Wood  Pulp: 

Bleached  Sulphite 

128,206 

42.755 

16,757 

41,037 

Unbleached  Sulphite 

344.969 

239.952 

253,454 

248,173 

Bleached  Sulphate 

17,277 

S.145 

3.759 

1,62s 

Unbleached  Sulphate 

182,697 

145.91 1 

118,761 

107,933 

Ground  Wood  Pulp 

233,148 

202,253 

185.478 

279,073 

Paper  Stock  other  than 

wood  pxilp 

254.755 

110,195 

29,397 

20,977  (d) 

Total 

1,161,052 

746,211 

607,606 

698,818 

(a)  Data  furnished  by  the  Department  of  Commerce.     Figures  for  pulp 

given  in  long  tons  and  reduced  to  net  tons  by  the  Commission. 

(b)  Includes  some  paper  already  converted  into  commercial  articles. 


a 


APPENDIX 


181 


Value);  and  Imports  and  Exports  of  all  Grades  of  Pulp 
1920,  Inclusive,    (a) 


paper 


I9I8 

I917 

Pounds 

Value 

Poimds 

Value 

1,192,540,059 

182,995 

7,942,134 

$35,023,161 

42.633 

S41.866 

143,449 
2.541. 157 

1,118,225,912 

412,091 

6,661,518 

$30,929,628 

67,931 

456.752 

281,906 

4.144,426 

193.477,853 
99,220,241 

7.978,296 
8.710,940 
3,055.255 
4.828,856 

884.415 
6,113,498 
1,526.777 

529.539 

6,170,601 

187,732,739 
94.548,586 

7,586,374 
8,179,868 
3,232,135 

59,899,043 

52,485,911 

3,987,239 
1,136,272 

3,636,235 

480,289  (c) 

465,814 

5,374.707 

38,292.266 
10.708. I 77 

35,880.643 

33,078.933 

PULP 


Exports 

1920 
Net  Tons 

1919 
Net  Tons 

1918 
Net  Tons 

I9I7 
Net  Ton3 

Domestic  Wood  Pulp 

t 

Rags  and  Other  Materials 
made  from  Vegetable  Fibres 

32,133 
42,282 

40,095 
27.271 

22.324 

X6,I2I 

39,180 
i6,3i2 

Total 

74.41S 

67,366 

38,445 

55.492 

(c)  Last  six  months  only.    First  six  months  included  in  other  grades. 

(d)  Rags  only. 


1 82 


APPENDIX 


Partial  List  of  Substance  Experimented  upon 

FOR  Paper-Making  ^ 


APPENDIX 


183 


Pasteboard  scraps 

Animal  substances 

Wheat  straw 

Rice  straw 

Raw  cotton 

Hornets'  nests 

Grapevines 

Lily  of  the  valley 

Cabbage  stumps 

Broom  com 

Bass  wood 

Cinch  grass 

Marshmallow 

Willow  twigs 

Leather  cuttings 

Cotton  waste 

Printed  waste 

Corn  husks 

Plantain 

Hay 

Bracken 

Sawdust 

Nettles 

Lime 

Burdock 

Asparagus 


Bamboo 

Mulberry 

Bark 

Silk 

Flax 

Hemp 

Satin 

Blue  grass 

Asbestos 

Leaves 

Tan 

Moss 

Beech 

Willow 

Aspen 

Ropes 

Bagging 

Figs 

Peat 

PiHC 

Aloes 

Arroche 

Thistles 

Linden 

Oakum 

Manures 


Hollyhock 
Reeds 
Oak 
Stone 
Old  sacks 
Floss  silk 
Licorice  wood 
Pine  shavings 
Decayed  wood 
White  wood 
Banana  leaves 
Gutta-percha 
Mummy  cloth 
Scotch  ferns 
Sultana  bark 
Cotton  stalks 
Dwarf  palm 
Water  broom 
Beet  root 
Corn  stalks 
Wool 
Bran 
Seaweed 
Rushes 
Elm 


Manufacturers  of  Writing  Papers 


JEtnsL  Paper  Co. 
American  Writing  Paper  Co. 
Beckett  Paper  Co. 
Berkshire  Hills  Paper  Co. 


Dayton,  Ohio 
Holyoke,  Mass. 
Hamilton,  Ohio 
Adams,  Mass. 


% 


iProm  "Chronology  of  Paper  and  Paper  Making"  by  J.   Munsell. 


Brown,  L.  L.,  Paper  Co. 
Carew  Mfg.  Co. 
Chapin  &  Gould  Paper  Co. 
Chemical  Paper  Mfg.  Co. 
Crane,  Z.  &  W.  M. 
Crane  &  Co. 
Crocker-McElwain  Co. 

Eastern  Mfg.  Co. 
Esleeck  Mfg.  Co. 
Fox  River  Paper  Co. 
Gilbert  Paper  Co. 
Glalfelter,  P.  H.,  Co. 
Hammermill  Paper  Co. 
Hampshire  Paper  Co. 
Hawthorne  Paper   Co. 
Henry  Paper  Co. 
Howard  Paper  Co. 
Keith  Paper  Co. 
Kimberly-Clark  Co. 
Lakeside  Paper  Co. 
Lee  Paper  Co. 
Marathon  Paper  Mills  Co. 

Millers  Falls  Paper  Co. 

Mountain  Mill  Paper  Co. 

Munising  Paper  Co. 

Neenah  Paper  Co. 

Odell  Mfg.  Co. 

Old  Berkshire  Mills  Co. 

Parsons  Paper  Co. 

Poland  Paper  Co. 

Rising,  B.  D.,  Paper  Co. 

Riverside  Fibre  &  Paper  Co. 

Southworth  Co. 

Strathmore  Paper  Co. 

Taylor-Logan   Co. 

Valley  Paper  Co. 

Weston,  Byron,   Co. 

Wheat  Paper  Co. 
Whiting,  Geo.  A.,  Paper  Co 


Adams,  Mass. 
So.  Hadley  Falls,  Mass. 
Springfield,  Mass. 
Holyoke,  Mass. 
Dalton,  Mass. 
Dalton,  Mass. 
Holyoke,  Mass. 
Bangor,   Me. 
Turners  Falls,   Mass. 
Appleton,    Wis. 
Menasha,  Wis. 
Spring  Grove,  Pa. 
Erie,   Pa. 

So.  Hadley  Falls,  Mass. 

Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

Lincoln,  N.  H. 

Urbana,   Ohio 

Turners  Falls,  Mass. 

Neenah,  Wis. 

Neenah,  Wis. 

Vicksburg,    Mich. 

Wausaw,  Wis. 

Millers  Falls,  Mass. 

Lee,  Mass. 

Munising,  Mich. 

Neenah,  Wis. 

New  York  City 

Dalton,  Mass. 

Holyoke,  Mass. 

Portland,  Me. 

Housatonic,  Mass. 

Appleton,  Wis. 

Mittineague,  Mass. 
Mittineague,  Mass. 
Holyoke,  Mass. 
Holyoke,  Mass. 
Dalton,  Mass. 
Elkhart,  Ind. 
Menasha,  Wis. 


i84 


APPENDIX 


Whiting  Paper  Co. 
Whiting-Plover  Paper  Co. 
Worthy  Paper  Co.  Associa- 
tion 


Holyoke,  Mass. 
Stevens  Point,  Wis. 

Mittineague,   Mass. 


Manufacturers  of  Fine  Stationery 


American  Papeterie  Co. 
Bainbridge,  Charles  T.,  Sons 
Berlin  &  Jones  Co. 
Birnie  Paper  Co. 
Coyle  &  Gilmore  Co. 
Crane,  Z.  &  W.  M. 
Eaton,  Crane  &  Pike  Co. 
Hurd,  George  B.,  &  Co. 
Kalamazoo  Stationery  Co. 
Morgan   Envelope   Co. 

Division 
Murphy,  John  A.,  Co. 
National  Papeterie  Co. 
Powers  Paper  Co. 
Taylor-Atkins  Paper  Co. 
Ward,  Marcus,  Co. 
Ward,  Samuel,  Co. 
Weyand,  Charles  E.  &  Co. 
White  &  Wyckoff  Mfg.  Co. 
Whitney  Mfg.  Co. 
Whiting  &  Cook  Co. 
Whiting  Paper  Co. 


Albany,  N.  Y. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
New  York  City 
Springfield,  Mass. 
New  York  City 
DaUon,  Mass. 
Pittsfield,  Mass. 
New  York  City 
Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

Springfield,  Mass. 
Springfield,  Mass. 
Springfield,  Mass. 
Springfield,  Mass. 
Burnside,  Conn. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Boston,  Mass. 
New  York  City 
Holyoke,  Mass. 
Worcester,  Mass. 
Holyoke,  Mass. 
New  York  City 


i 


Books  for  Reference 

Paper  Technology,  R.  W.  Sindall.    Lippincott,  $4 
The  Manufacture  of  Paper,  R.  W.  Smdall.    VanNostrand,  $2 
Manufacture  of  Paper,  C.  T.  Davis.    Baird,  $6  .  ^^  ^^ 

Practical  Paper  Making,  G.  Clapperton.    VanNostrand,  $2.50 
Bulletins  of  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 


APPENDIX 


185 


Modern  Pulp  and  Paper  Making,  G.  S.  Witham,  Sr.,  Chem- 

ical  Catalog  Co.,  Inc.  (N.  Y.) 
Chronology  of  Paper  and  Paper  Making,  J.  Munsell 
Report  on  Paper  and  Pulp  Manufacturing,  National  Bureau 

of  Casualty  and   Surety  Underwriters 
Paper  and  Paper  Making,  Herring. 
The  Story  of  Paper  Making,  F.  O.  Butler.     J.  W.  Butler 

Paper  Co.,  75  cents 
Chapters  on  Paper  Making,  Clayton  Beadle.    VanNostrand, 

$2  ,   ^ 

The  Art  of  Paper  Making,  A.  Watt.    VanNostrand,  $3 
Paper  and  Its  Uses,  Dawe.    Crosby  Lockwood  &  Sons  (Lon- 

Wood  Pulp  and  Its  Uses,  Cross,  Bevan,  and  Sindall.    Van- 
Nostrand, $2 
Outlines  of  Stationery  Testing,  Bromley 
Treatment  of  Paper  for  Special  Purposes,  L.  E.  Andes.    Van- 
Nostrand, $2.50 
The  Paper  Trade,  A.  Dykes  Spicer 
Commerce  and  Industry,  J.  Russel  Smith.    Holt,  $1.40 
Industrial  Chemfstry,  Rogers  Benson.     Macmillan,  $1.90 
Scientific  American  Cyclopaedia  ^  „    . 

Old  Time  Wall  Papers,  Kate  Sanborn.     Literary  Collector 

Press   (N.  Y.) 
Wall  Paper  News  and  Interior  Decorator 
Forty  Centuries  of  Ink,  D.  N.  Carvalho.    Banks,  $3.50 
From  Out  of  the  Ashes.     Derapsy  and  Carroll 
Work,  American  Stationer 


INDEX 


Addresses,  Engraved,  133 
Alabaster,  149 
Alaskan    Forests 

Alaskan") 
Aluminum,  14S 
Amber,  150 
Aniline  Ink,  162 
Announcements, 


(See    "Forests, 


Wedding      (See 


"  Wedding   Invitations  and  An- 
nouncements") 
At  Home  Card.  130 


B 


Bond  Paper,  64.  72 
tests  for, 
crackle,  80 
finish,  80 
looks,  80 
strength,  80 
wearing,  81 
writing,  81 

Book  Paper,  6s 
India,  66 

Brass,  145 

Bristol  Board,  84 

Bronze,  14S 

Building  Paper,  91 

Burgess,  Hugh,  35 


Bagasse,  17.  39 
Bank  Book  Envelopes,  74 
Bank  Note  Paper,  83 
Barking  Drum,  28 
Barytes,  or  Blanc  Fixe,  49.  62 
Bast  Fibers,  14 
Beaters  or  Hollanders,  42-43 
Beaverboard,  93 
Bible  Paper,  18,  66 
Blanc  Fixe,  49.  63 
Bleaching. 
pulp, 

rag,  27 

wood  or  straw,  40 
Block    Printing,    Wall    Papers, 

96 
Blotting  Paper,  83 
Blue  Black  Ink,  163 
Blue  Print  Paper,  83 
Boards  or  Board  Paper,  84 


Calendars,  152 
Calenders,  S7,  60 
Calling  Cards,  125-128 
form  of  name,  126-128 
manufacture,  70 
sizes,  125 

husband  and  wife,  12S 
matron,  125 
men,  125 
misses,  125 
styles  of  lettering,  126 
Carbon  Paper,  8s 
Cards, 

Christmas  and  anniversary,  IS2 
correspondence,  72 
calling  (See  "Calling  Cards") 
playing,  IS3>  I7i 


187 


1 88 


INDEX 


Celluloid,  148 
Cellulose, 

foundation  material  for  paper,  4 

sources  of,  4 
Chemicals, 

recovery  of,  in  pulp  manufacture, 

37 
Chinese, 
early  papers,  108 
wall  paper,  103 
Christmas  Cards,  152 
Coated  Paper,  6a 
Coats  of  Arms,  134 
Coin  Envelopes,  74 
Color, 

in  good  paper,  79 
in  household  decoration,  100-102 
in  leather  goods,  140 
in  metal  goods,  146 
Colored  Inks,  163 
Colored  Pencils,  156 
Commercial  Stationery, 
bond  paper,  72 

envelopes,  special  kinds,  74-75 
sizes,  73 
Copper,  144 
Copper  Plates, 
care  of,  lai 
engraving,  Ii8 
printing,  119 
Copy,  Writing  for  Engraver,  122 
Cord,  167 
Corn  Stalks,  17 
Correspondence  Cards,  72 
Cotton  Linters,  is.  16,  38 
Cotton  Rags,  St  6,  113 
Couch  Roll, 
of  decker,  34 
of  Fourdrinier,  s6,  59 
Crackle,  Test  for  in  Bond  Paper, 

80 
Crane,  Walter,  102 
Crepe  Paper,  8s.  86 
Crests.  134 


Crop  Fibers,  ii 

Customs,  Social,  124 
calling  cards,  126-128 
crests  and  coats  of  arms,  134 
invitations,  132 
wedding.  131 


Dandy  Roll,  s6,  58 

laid  paper,  58 

wove  paper,  58 
Deckle,  52 

straps,  55.  58 
Deckle-Edged  Paper,  53.  86 
Design. 

in  leather  goods,  139 

in  metal  goods,  146 

methods  of  applying,  147 

in  wall  paper,  99 
Dies  (See  "  Steel  Dies") 
Digesters,  Sulphite  Pulp,  32 
Display  Envelopes,  74 
Double  Envelopes,  74 
Drug  and  Pay  Envelopes,  74 
Dryers,  56,  59 

Duplex  or  Double  Envelopes,  74 
Durability  of  Paper,  77 

order  of,  78 
Dutch  Silver,  144 
Dyes,  Coloring  Paper,  46 


B 


Embossed  Wall  Paper,  97 
Embossing  or  Stamping  from  Steel 

Dies.  120 
Enamel,  149 
Engine-Sizing,  50 
English  Finish  Paper,  64 
Engraved  Wall  Paper,  96 
Engraving,  117-135 

addresses,  133 

calling  cards  (See  "Calling  cards") 


INDEX 


189 


Engraving — Continued 


copper  plate,  118 

printing,  119 
copy  for,  122 

crests  and  coats  of  arms,  134 
intaglio,  118 
invitations,  123 
lettering,  styles  of,  126,  127 
monograms,  133 
origin  of,  122 
selling  suggestions,  170 
social     customs     (See     "Customs, 

social ") 
steel  die,  119 

embossing  or  stamping,  120 
illumination,  121 
Steel  plate,  118 
printing,  119 
wedding  invitations  and  announce- 
ments (See  "Wedding  Invitations 
and  Annovmcements") 
Envelopes, 
bank  book,  74 
coin,  74 
display,  74 
drug  and  pay,  74 
duplex  or  double,  74 
expansion  wallets,  74i  75 
fastener,  74 
manufacture  of,  70 
postage-saving,  75 
security  mailing,  75 
window,  75 
Erasers, 
ink,  163.  165 
pencil,  l6s 
Esparto,  13 
Expansion  Wallets,  74 


Fastener  Envelopes,  74 
Favors,  151 


Fibers  Usbd  in  Paper-Making, 
bast,  14 

cotton  and  linen,  4-6 
cotton  linters,  15.  16 
esparto,  13 
grasses,  li 
hemp  hurds,  14 
lengths,  7 

papyrus,  13  ^ 

rice  straw,  13 
straw,  II,  12 
various    substances    experimented 

with,  17,  182 
waste  paper,  21 
wood  pvtlp,  6,  30,  35 
Filter  Paper,  86 
Finish, 

tests  for,  77 
bond  paper,  80 
ledger  paper,  82 
Finishing  Paper, 
book,  65-66 
calendering,  60 
coating,  62 
glazing,  60,  63 
hand-made,  52-S4 

difference  between  it  and  machine 

made,  54 
length  of  process,  54 
water  mark,  53 
newsprint,  67 
plating,  61 
rewinding,  61 
stationery,  64 
supercalendering,  61 
water  finish,  63 
Flock  Papers,  97 
Foolscap,  S3.  72 
Forests, 
Alaskan, 
climate,  21 

cost  of  development,  ai 
extent,  19 
resources,  18 


190 


INDEX 


Forests — Continued 
Alaskan — Continued 
transportation,  I9 
water  power,  20 
destruction  of, 
forest  fires,  9,  10 
government  investigations,  9 
overcutting   7 
reforestation,  10 
Fountain       Pens       (See       "Pens, 
fountain") 

FOURDRINIER  MACHINE,  SA"^ 

dandy  roll,  56,  S8 
deckle  straps,  55,  58 
dryers,  56,  59 
parts  of,  55-57 
pulp  on  wire,  57 

time  required  to  make  into  paper,  57 
Furnish,  The,  44 


German  Silver,  144 
Gifts  and  Favors,  151.  I7I 
Glazed  Paper,  63 
Glue,  163 
Gold,  I43 


Hand-Made  Paper,  52-54 

difference  between  it  and  machine- 
made,  54 

length  of  process,  54 

water  mark,  53 
history,  53 
Hard  Rubber,  148,  iS9 
Hardware  Paper,  87 
Hemp  Flyings,  18 
Hemp  Hurds,  14 
Heraldry,  134 
High  Bulk  Paper,  64 
History  of  Paper,  105-116 

American  industry,  111-114 


History  of  Paper — Continued 

Canadian  industry,  IIS 

Chinese  papers,  108 

chronology  of  principal  inventions 
and  patents,  115 

cotton  and  linen  rags,  113 

earliest  forms,  106,  108 

European  industry,  no 

Japanese,  109 

papyrus,  107 

parchment,  106 
Hollanders  or  Beaters,  42-43 
Household  Decoration, 

color  for,  100-102 


iLLXmiNATION    OF    EMBOSSED    WORK, 
121 

Imitations, 

of  engraving,  123 

of  leather,  93 
Indelible  Ink,  163 
Indelible  Pencils,  156 
India  Ink,  163 
India  Paper,  66 
Ink, 

aniline,  162 

blue  black,  163 

colored,  163 

eradicators,  163 

erasers,  163 

fountain  pen,  163 

indelible,  163 

India,  163 

materials,  162 

requirements,  162 
Ink  Eradicators.  163 
Ink  Erasers,  163,  165 
Intaglio  Engraving,  118 

copper  plate,  118 

steel  die,  118 

steel  plate,  118 


i 


INDEX 


191 


Invitations  (See  also  "Wedding  In- 
vitations and  Announcements") 

forms,  132 

sizes  and  styles,  13a 
Iron,  145 
Ivory, 149 


Japanese  Papers,  87,  io9 

leather,  98 
Jordon  Engine,  44 


K 


Kraft  Paper,  37,  88 


Labels,  167 
Laid  Paper,  58,  64 
Lead  Pencils  (See  "Pencils") 
Leather  Goods,   136-140   (See  also 
Manual   on   "Leather   Goods  and 

Gloves") 
articles,  136 
color,  140 
design,  I39 
leathers  used,  136 

Levant,  I37 
morocco,  137 
parchment,  I37 
Russia,  137 

tanning  and  dressing,  138 
tooling,  138,  139 
burning,  I39 
embossing,  138 
hammering  or  punching,  I39 
incising,  138 
stamping,  I39 
vellum,  137 
Lbatherboard,  93 


Ledger  Papers, 
tests  for,  8i-8a 
erasing,  8x 
finish,  82 
looks,  82 
strength,  81 
weaving,  81 
writing,  81 
Lee  Process,  17.  39 
Lettering,  Styles  of, 
calling  cards,  126 

wedding  invitations  and  announce- 
ments, 128 
Levant  Leather,  137 
Linen  Finish,  64 
Linen  Rags,  4. 6 
Linoleum,  93 

Loading  or  Filling  Pulp,  48-49 
Looks,  Test  for, 
in  bond  paper,  80 
in  ledger  paper,  82 

M 

Manila  Paper,  88 

Marble,  149 

Mechanical  Wood  Pulp  (See  "Wood 

ptdp,  mechanical") 
Mercury,  144 
Metal  Goods, 
color,  146 
design,  146,  I47 

application  of,  147-148 
metals  used  in, 

altmiinum,  145 

brass.  145 

bronze,  14S.  146 

copper,  144 

gold,  143 

iron,  145 

mercury,  144 

nickel,  145 

silver,  143.  144 

steel,  145 


192 


INDEX 


Mbtal  Goods — Continued 
metals  used  in — Continued 

zinc,  144 
other  materials  used. 

alabaster,  149 

amber,  150 

celluloid,  148 

enamel,  149 

hard  rubber,  148 

ivory,  149 

marble,  149 

mother-of-pearl,  150 

onyx,  149 
Monograms,  133 

styles,  133 
Morocco  Lbathbr,  137 
Morris,  William,  102 

MoTHER-OF-PeARL,  ISO 

Mourning  Stationery,  70 
mucilagb,  164 


National    Forests,    Alaska    (See 

"Forests,  Alaskan") 
Newsprint  Paper,  67 
Nickel,  14s 
Novelties,  151-1 53 

selling  suggestions,  170-172 
Novelty  Finishes,  Writing  Paper, 
64 


Onion  Skin  Paper,  88 

Onyx,  149 

Oxford  India  Paper  Bible,  66 


Packing  Papers,  88 
Paper, 

book,  65 

cellulose,  fotindation  material.  4 


Paper — Continued 
classification  of,  178 
fibers  used  for  (See  "Fibers  Used  in 

Paper- Making  ") 
finishing  (See  "Finishing  Paper") 
history,    105-116    (See   also    "His- 
tory of  Paper") 
newsprint,  67 
pulp  (See  "Paper  Pulp") 
qualities  of  good,  76-82 

color,  79 

durability,  77 

finish.  77 

strength,  78 

texture,  76 
special  kinds  of,  83-93 
terts  for,  80-82 
wall  (See  "Wall  Paper") 
writing  (See  "Stationery") 
Paper  Carpets,  93 
Paper  Pulp, 

conversion  into  paper,  42-SX 

beaters,  42-43 

dyeing,  45-48 

finishing  (See  "Finishing  Paper") 

Pourdrinier  machine  (See  "Four- 
drinier  machine  ") 

furnish,  the,  44 

Jordan  engine,  44 

loading  or  filling,  48-49 

sizing,  49-51 

BtuS  chests,  43 

time  required,  57 
rag  pulp  manufacture,  23-27 

bleaching,  27 

boiling,  25 

cutting,  24 

dusting.  23 

sorting,  24 

washing,  25,  26 

wood    pulp    manufacture     (See 
"Wood  Pulp") 
Paper  Sets,  167 
Paper  Toweling,  88 


INDEX 


193 


Papier  MachC,  88 
Papyrus,  13 

early  use  of,  107 
Parchment,  106,  I37 
Parchment  Paper,  89 
Paste,  164 

Pearl  Hardening,  48 
Pencils, 

kinds,  156 

manufacture,  i54i  ISS 
wood  used,  i55 

selling  points,  172 
Pens, 

fountain,  159-161 
forms,  161 

ink,  163 

materials  and  manufacture,  159 
ornamentation,  160 
parts,  159 
set  of,  160 
history,  156 
manvifacture,  iS7t  1S8 
metals  used,  158 
Photographic  Paper,  90 
Plates    (See   "Copper   Plates"   and 

"Steel  Plates") 
Playing  Cards,  i 53.  171 
Postage  Saving  Envelopes,  75 
Printing, 

imitation  of  engraving,  123 
Protective  Papers,  90 


Quick-silver,  144 
Quires,  68,  69 


Rag  Paper; 

manufacture    (See    "Paper 
rag  pulp  manufacture") 
Reams,  68,  69 
13 


Pulp, 


Records, 

early  methods  of  keeping,  105 
Reforestation,  7 
Rice  Paper,  90 
Rice  Straw,  13 
Roofing  Paper,  91 
Rubber  Bands,  166 
Rubber,  Hard,  148,  iS9 
Rulers,  165 
Russia  Leather,  137 


Safety  Paper,  90 

Sample     Books,     in     Stationery 

Department,  169 
Sealing  Wax,  1641 172 
Seals,  166 

Seasonal  Goods,  152 
Security  Mailing  Envelopes,  75 
Sheffield  Plate,  143 
Silver,  143 

Dutch,  144 

German,  144 

Sheffield  plate,  143 
Silverware  Paper,  91 
Sizes  of  Stationery, 

commercial,  72 

correspondence,  71 

envelopes,  74-75 
Sizing,  49-Si 
Soda    Pulp     (See     "Wood     Pulps, 

Soda") 
Spruce,  ii 
Stamping  or  Embossing  from  Steel 

Dies,  lao 
Stationery, 
commercial,  72 
finishes, 

bond,  64 

English,  64 

high  bulk,  64 

laid,  64 

linen,  64 


194 


INDEX 


Stationery — Continued 
finishes — Continued 

novelty,  6s 

wove,  64 
making  paper  into,  68-75 

cards.  70 

correspondence  paper,  68 

envelopes,  70 
sizes, 

commercial,  72 

correspondence,  71 

envelopes,  74-75 
suggestions  to  customers  on,   168- 

170 
Stationery  Department, 

classification  of  stock,  I73-I77 
divisions,  i 

high-grade  salesmanship  essential,  2 
sample  books  in,  169 
variety  of  stock,  i 
Stationery  Supplies, 
cord,  167 
erasers, 

ink,  163,  165 

pencil,  i6s 
glue,  163 
ink  (See  "Ink") 
labels.  167 
mucilage,  164 
paper  sets,  167 
paste,  164 

pencils  (See  "PencUs") 
pens  (See  "Pens") 
rubber  bands,  166 
rulers,  i6s 
sealing  wax,  164 
seals,  166 

selling  suggestions,  170-17* 
twine,  167 
Steel. 145 
Steel  Dies, 
care  of,  121 
embossing  or  stamping.  lao 

illumination,  121 


Steel  Dies — Continued 

engraving,  119 
Steel  Plates, 

care  of.  121 

engraving,  118 

printing,  119 
Stock  or  Stuff  Chest.  43 
Straw  Paper,  12 
Strength  of  Paper,  78 

tests  for, 

bond  paper,  80 
ledger  paper,  81 
Stuff  Chest,  43 
Sulphate  Pulp.  37.  38 
Sulphite   Pulp  (See   "Wood    Pulp, 

Sulphite") 
Supbrcalendering,  61 


Tea  Box  Papers.  99 
Tests. 

bond  papers,  80,  81 

ledger  papers,  81,  82 
Texture  of  Good  Paper,  76 
TiLGHMAN,  B.  C,  31 
Tin  Foil,  91 
Tissue  Papers,  91 
ToNGASs  Forest,  Alaska,  19 
Tooling.     Leather     Goods     (See 

"Leather  Goods") 
Tracing  Paper,  92 
Transfer  Paper,  92 
Traveling  Paper,  88 
Tub  Sizing,  50-51 
Twine,  167 


Vellum,  92,  136 

Visiting      Cards      (See      "Calling 

Cards") 
Vulcanized  Fiber,  92 
Vulcanized  Paper,  92 


INDEX 


195 


I 


i 


W 


Wall  Paper,  94-104 
design  in,  99 
drying,  76 
embossed.  97 
engraved.  96 
flock,  97 
furnish,  the,  94 
history,  102 
Chinese,  103 
scenic,  103 
Japanese  leather,  98 
manufacture,  94 
printing.  94-96 
block,  96 
grounding,  95 
Waste  Paper, 

manufacture  into  pulp,  40 
use  as  raw  material  for  paper,  21 
Water  Finish  Paper,  63 
Water  Leaf  Paper,  63 
Water  Mark, 
history,  53 

in  hand-made  paper,  53 
Watt,  Charles,  35 
Waxed  Paper,  93 
Wearing, 
tests  for, 

bond  paper,  81 
ledger  paper.  81 
Wedding     Invitations     and     An- 
nouncements. 128-131 
customs,  131 
forms,  129-130 

announcements,  130 
at  home  cards,  130 
cards  of  admission  to  church,  130 
impersonal,  129 
invitations  to  reception,  130 
personal,  129 
paper  used,  128 
styles  of  lettering,  128 
Window  Envelopes,  75 


Wood  Fibers,  6,  7,  i* 
Wood  Pulps, 
bleaching,  40 
fibers, 6 

length,  7 
forests  (See  "  Forests") 
importation,  8 
mechanical,  28-31 

barking  drum,  28 

bleaching,  4^ 

characteristics,  6 

grinding,  29 

screening  and  pressing,  30 

woods  used,  28,  30 

soda, 35-37 

characteristics  of ,  37 

digestion  or  cooking,  36 

invention.  35 

preparation  of  wood.  35 

recovery  of  chemicals,  37 

woods  used,  35 
sulphate,  37.  38 
sulphite,  31-35 

characteristics,  34 

deckers,  34 

digesters,  32 

invention   of ,  31 

preparation  of  wood.  32 

woods  used,  31 
Woods  (See  also  "Wood  Pulps") 
used  for  pencils,  IS5 
used  for  various  pulps,  8,  28,  30,  31. 

35,  38 
Wove  Paper,  58,  64 
Writing, 
tests  for, 

bond  paper.  81 

ledger  paper,  81 
Writing  Paper  (See  "Stationery!') 


Zacaton,  17 
Zinc,  144 


Date  Due 

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